19-7-2019 MONTE CORONA, VALENCIA - CRICKET BAT ORBWEAVER (Mangora acalypha)

Mangora acalypha, also known by its common name cricket-bat orbweaver,is a species of spider in the family Araneidae, found throughout the Palearctic realm. This species was originally described by Charles Athanase Walckenaer in 1802 as Aranea acalypha.

Habitat

Mangora acalypha is common in meadows, forests and gardens.

The Cricket-bat Orbweaver is a species of spider, scientifically known as Mangora acalypha, named for the black, cricket-bat-shaped markings on its abdomen. It is a common spider in the Palearctic region, inhabiting meadows, forests, and gardens, where it constructs typical orb-shaped webs to catch flying insects. This spider is not considered medically significant to humans, as it directs its venom toward its prey. 

Key characteristics

Scientific Name: Mangora acalypha

Common Names: Cricket-bat Orbweaver, Cricket-bat Spider, Streifenkreuzspinne (in German)

Family: Araneidae (orb-weavers)

Appearance: Known for a black marking on its abdomen that resembles a cricket bat.

Habitat: Meadows, forests, and gardens, and is becoming more common in gardens.

Behavior: Builds typical orb webs to catch flying insects like flies, mosquitos, and moths.

Venom: Not considered dangerous to humans, as its venom is primarily used to subdue prey.

23-5-2019 MANA POOLS, ZIMBABWE - SOUTHERN RED BILLED HORNBILL (Tockus rufirostris)

The southern red-billed hornbill (Tockus rufirostris) is a species of hornbill in the family Bucerotidae, which is native to the savannas and dryer bushlands of southern Africa. It is replaced by a near-relative, the Damara red-billed hornbill, in the arid woodlands of western Namibia. All five red-billed hornbills were formerly considered conspecific.

The sexes are similar, but males are larger and heavier. Males also have somewhat longer bills, with the lower mandible coloured black to a variable extent. It is distinguishable from other red-billed hornbills by the combination of yellow iris and pale orbital skin (pink to greyish), and the ample blackish plumage streaking from the ear coverts to the side of the neck. The throat is white, and the wing coverts clearly spotted.

The call consists of an accelerating series notes, kuk kuk kuk ... which ends in a crescendo of double notes, kuk-we kuk-we. Unlike other red-billed hornbills, Southern red-billed hornbills do not raise their wings in display.

It is found from Malawi and Zambia to southern Angola, northeastern Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, eastern Eswatini and northern South Africa (Transvaal and northern KZN province). It occurs in the upper Zambezi valley of Mozambique, but is mostly absent from the eastern lowlands.

16-7-2019 MONTE CORONA, VALENCIA - GREAT TIT (Parus major)

The great tit (Parus major) is a small passerine bird, easily recognized by its black head and neck, striking white cheeks, olive upperparts, and vibrant yellow underparts. This bird is the most widespread species in the genus Parus, found across Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia, and parts of North Africa.

Males are characterized by their bright plumage, with a black bib that extends down the belly, bordered by a lemon-yellow breast. Females and juveniles are similar but have duller coloration. The black line down the belly is also narrower and sometimes broken in these birds.

Great tits favor a variety of woodland habitats, including deciduous and mixed forests, forest edges, and even urban parks and gardens. They are also found in riverine woodlands and, in some regions, boreal taiga.

17-7-2019 BONAIRE, VALENCIA - EUROPEAN BEE-EATER (Merops apiaster)

17-7-2019 ALBUFERA, VALENCIA - WHISKERED TERN (JUVENILE) (Chlidonias niger)

The Whiskered Tern, Chlidonias hybrida, is a member of the tern family Laridae, exhibiting a swallow-like appearance, as suggested by its genus name derived from the Ancient Greek khelidonios. This species is the largest of the marsh terns, showcasing a blend of features from both the white Sterna terns and the black tern.

Adult Whiskered Terns in summer plumage are characterized by their robust bill, measuring 29–34 mm in males and 25–27 mm in females, with a pronounced gonys. They possess a black cap and a short, forked-looking tail. The cheeks are white, and the legs and bill are a vibrant red. Juveniles display a white-flecked crown and a more uniformly blackish hindcrown, while the winter adult has a similar pattern with additional white flecking. The black ear-coverts create a C-shaped band when viewed from above. Throughout the year, the rump maintains a pale grey hue. The call of the Whiskered Tern is a distinctive "krekk."

Whiskered Terns breed in colonies on inland marshes, often in the company of black-headed gulls, which offer a degree of protection.

The Whiskered Tern has several geographical races, varying mainly in size and minor plumage details. The Eurasian Whiskered Tern (C. h. hybrida) is found in warmer parts of Europe and the Palearctic, while the African Whiskered Tern (C. h. delalandii) resides in east and south Africa, and the Australasian Whiskered Tern (C. h. javanicus) ranges from Java to Australia. The tropical forms are resident, but European and Asian birds migrate south to Africa and the Indian Subcontinent for wintering.

European and Asian Whiskered Terns are migratory, traveling south during the winter months. A tagged individual was observed in April 2021 at the Manakudi Bird Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu, India.

The Whiskered Tern is known for its characteristic "krekk" call.

This species breeds in colonies on inland marshes, sometimes amongst black-headed gulls.

The diet of the Whiskered Tern includes small fish, amphibians, insects, and crustaceans.

The Whiskered Tern is currently listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, indicating that it is not at immediate risk of population decline.

17-7-2019 ALBUFERA, VALENCIA - WHISKERED TERN (Chlidonias niger)

17-7-2019 ALBUFERA, VALENCIA - EUROPEAN TURTLE DOVE (Sternula albifrons)

It is a bird of open rather than dense woodlands, and frequently feeds on the ground. It will occasionally nest in large gardens, but is usually extremely timid, probably due to the heavy hunting pressure it faces during migration. The flight is often described as arrowy, but is not remarkably swift.

The nuptial flight, high and circling, is like that of the common wood pigeon, but the undulations are less decided; it is accompanied by the whip-crack of the downward flicked wings. The arrival in spring is heralded by its cooing or purring song, a rather deep, vibrating "turrr, turrr".

17-7-2019 ALBUFERA, VALENCIA - NOMAD DRAGONFLY (FEMALE) (Sympetrum fonscolombii)

The red-veined darter or nomad (Sympetrum fonscolombii) is a dragonfly of the genus Sympetrum.

Sympetrum fonscolombii was named under the protonym Libellula fonscolombii by the Belgian entomologist Edmond de Sélys Longchamps, in 1840, in honor of the French entomologist Étienne of Fonscolombe (hence the species name). Its name is sometimes spelt fonscolombei instead of fonscolombii but Askew (2004) gives the latter as the correct spelling.

Sympetrum fonscolombii can reach a body length of 38–40 millimetres (1.5–1.6 in). This species is similar to other Sympetrum species but a good view with binoculars should give a positive identification, especially with a male.

Males have a red abdomen, redder than many other Sympetrum species. The frons and the thorax are red-brown. The eyes are brown above and blue/grey below. The wings have red veins and the wing bases of the hind-wings are yellow. The pterostigma is pale yellow with a border of black veins.

Female are similar but the abdomen is ochre yellow, not red, with two black lines along each side. The wings have yellow veins at the costa, leading edge and base, not red veins as found in the males. The legs of both sexes are mostly black with some yellow.

Immature males are like females but often with more red and a single line along each side of the abdomen.

17-7-2019 ALBUFERA, VALENCIA - BLACK WINGED STILT (Himantopus himantopus)

17-7-2019 ALBUFERA, VALENCIA - GULL BILLED TERN (JUVENILE) (Gelochelidon nilotica)

The Gull-billed Tern, Gelochelidon nilotica, is a robust bird, akin in stature to the Sandwich Tern. It boasts a stout, gull-like bill, broad wings, and lengthy legs. In its summer plumage, the adult displays grey upperparts, stark white underparts, a jet-black cap, and matching black bill and legs. The species measures 33–42 cm in length with a wingspan of 76–91 cm, and weighs between 150–292 g.

In its non-breeding attire, the Gull-billed Tern loses its black cap, revealing a dark eye patch reminiscent of a Forster's Tern or a Mediterranean Gull. Juveniles bear a paler mask and resemble winter adults. The juvenile Sandwich Tern, with its shorter bill, is often mistaken for the Gull-billed Tern in regions where the latter is scarce.

The Gull-billed Tern is found in a variety of habitats, including lakes, marshes, and coastal regions such as bays and earthen levees. In Eurasia, it is commonly seen in freshwater areas, whereas in North America, it is almost exclusively associated with saltwater coastal environments.

This species enjoys a wide distribution, breeding in southern Europe, temperate and eastern Asia, North America's coasts, and eastern South America. It exhibits post-breeding dispersal, with northern populations migrating to winter in Africa, the Caribbean, northern South America, southern Asia, and New Zealand.

17-7-2019 ALBUFERA, VALENCIA - STRETCH SPIDER (Genus Tetragnatha)

Tetragnatha is a genus of long-jawed orb-weavers found all over the world. It was first described by Pierre André Latreille in 1804, and contains hundreds of species. Most occur in the tropics and subtropics, and many can run over water. They are commonly called stretch spiders in reference to their elongated body form and their ability to hide on blades of grass or similar elongated substrates by stretching their front legs forward and the others behind them.

Species in this genus are found worldwide, including Greenland.

Tetragnatha species occupy the tall herb and tree layer. They construct orb webs, usually in vegetation near or above streams and ponds. Several studies have reported that they build their webs near slow-flowing streams in sunlit areas. Without access to a humid habitat, these spiders suffer from dehydration. The webs are short-lived, being taken down and digested daily or even more frequently. Webs are usually horizontally inclined and consist of an open hub with 30 to 40 viscid spirals. The spider hangs underneath the central hub of the web with its long front legs directed forward.

These spiders are capable of walking over water surfaces at a very fast pace, with legs I and II moving alternately in a diagonal rhythm while legs III and IV are dragged behind. When at rest on vegetation, the body is pressed against the substrate with the long front legs stretched forward.

One of the biggest and most common species is T. extensa, which has a holarctic distribution. It can be found near lakes, river banks or swamps. Large numbers of individuals can often be found in reeds, tall grass, and around minor trees and shrubs.

23-5-2019 MANA POOLS, ZIMBABWE - CAPE WILD DOG (Lycaon pictus ssp. pictus)

The African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), also called painted dog and Cape hunting dog, is a wild canine native to sub-Saharan Africa. It is the largest wild canine in Africa, and the only extant member of the genus Lycaon, which is distinguished from Canis by dentition highly specialised for a hypercarnivorous diet and by a lack of dewclaws.

It is estimated that there are around 6,600 adults (including 1,400 mature individuals) living in 39 subpopulations, all threatened by habitat fragmentation, human persecution and outbreaks of disease. As the largest subpopulation probably consists of fewer than 250 individuals, the African wild dog has been listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List since 1990.

The African wild dog is a specialized hunter of terrestrial ungulates, mostly hunting at dawn and dusk, but also displays diurnal activity. It captures its prey by using stamina and cooperative hunting to exhaust them. Its natural competitors are lions and spotted hyenas: the former will kill the dogs where possible whilst the latter are frequent kleptoparasites. Like other canids, the African wild dog regurgitates food for its young but also extends this action to adults as a central part of the pack's social unit. The young have the privilege of feeding first on carcasses.

The African wild dog has been revered in several hunter-gatherer societies, particularly those of the San people and Prehistoric Egypt.

The African wild dog occurs foremost in Southern and East Africa. It is rare in North Africa and mostly absent in West Africa, with the only potentially viable population occurring in Senegal's Niokolo-Koba National Park. It is occasionally sighted in other parts of Senegal, Guinea and Mali. Its distribution is patchy in East Africa. It inhabits mostly savannas and arid zones, generally avoiding forested areas. This preference is likely linked to its hunting habits, which require open areas that do not obstruct vision or impede pursuit. It travels through scrubland, woodland and montane areas in pursuit of prey. A forest-dwelling population has been identified in the Harenna Forest, a wet montane forest up to an elevation of 2,400 m (7,900 ft) in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia. At least one record exists of a pack being sighted on the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro.[26] In Zimbabwe, it has been recorded at the elevation of 1,800 m (5,900 ft).[9] In Ethiopia, several packs were sighted at elevations of 1,900 to 2,800 m (6,200 to 9,200 ft), and a dead individual was found in June 1995 at 4,050 m (13,290 ft) on the Sanetti Plateau. A stable population comprising more than 370 individuals is present in Kruger National Park.

The African wild dog have strong social bonds, stronger than those of sympatric lions and spotted hyenas; thus, solitary living and hunting are extremely rare in the species. It lives in permanent packs consisting of two to 27 adults and yearling pups. The typical pack size in the Kruger National Park and the Maasai Mara is four or five adults, while packs in Moremi and Selous Game Reserves contain eight or nine. However, larger packs have been observed and temporary aggregations of hundreds of individuals may have gathered in response to the seasonal migration of vast springbok herds in Southern Africa. Males and females have separate dominance hierarchies, with the latter usually being led by the oldest female. Males may be led by the oldest male, but these can be supplanted by younger specimens; thus, some packs may contain elderly male former pack leaders. The dominant pair typically monopolises breeding. The species differs from most other social carnivorans in that males remain in the natal pack, while females disperse (a pattern also found in primates such as gorillas, chimpanzees, and red colobuses). 

Furthermore, males in any given pack tend to outnumber females 3:1. Dispersing females join other packs and evict some of the resident females related to the other pack members, thus preventing inbreeding and allowing the evicted individuals to find new packs of their own and breed. Males rarely disperse, and when they do, they are invariably rejected by other packs already containing males. Although arguably the most social canid, the species lacks the elaborate facial expressions and body language found in the wolf, likely because of the African wild dog's less hierarchical social structure. Furthermore, while elaborate facial expressions are important for wolves in re-establishing bonds after long periods of separation from their family groups, they are not as necessary to African wild dogs, which remain together for much longer periods. The species does have an extensive vocal repertoire consisting of twittering, whining, yelping, squealing, whispering, barking, growling, gurling, rumbling, moaning and hooing.

African wild dog populations in East Africa appear to have no fixed breeding season, whereas those in Southern Africa usually breed during the April–July period. During estrus, the female is closely accompanied by a single male, which keeps other members of the same sex at bay.[26] The estrus period can last as long as 20 days. The copulatory tie characteristic of mating in most canids has been reported to be absent or very brief (less than one minute) in African wild dog, possibly an adaptation to the prevalence of larger predators in its environment. The gestation period lasts 69–73 days, with the interval between each pregnancy being 12–14 months typically. The African wild dog produces more pups than any other canid, with litters containing around six to 16 pups, with an average of 10, thus indicating that a single female can produce enough young to form a new pack every year. Because the amount of food necessary to feed more than two litters would be impossible to acquire by the average pack, breeding is strictly limited to the dominant female, which may kill the pups of subordinates. After giving birth, the mother stays close to the pups in the den, while the rest of the pack hunts. She typically drives away pack members approaching the pups until the latter are old enough to eat solid food at three to four weeks of age. The pups leave the den around the age of three weeks and are suckled outside. The pups are weaned at the age of five weeks, when they are fed regurgitated meat by the other pack members. By seven weeks, the pups begin to take on an adult appearance, with noticeable lengthening in the legs, muzzle, and ears. Once the pups reach the age of eight to 10 weeks, the pack abandons the den and the young follow the adults during hunts. The youngest pack members are permitted to eat first on kills, a privilege which ends once they become yearlings. African wild dogs have an average lifespan of about 10 to 11 years in the wild.

When separated from the pack, an African wild dog becomes depressed and can die as a result of broken heart syndrome.

23-5-2019 MANA POOLS, ZIMBABWE - BUSHVELD HELMETED GUINEA FOWL (Numida meleagris ssp. mitratus)

https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/467857-Numida-meleagris-mitratus

23-5-2019 MANA POOLS, ZIMBABWE - EMERALD SPOTTED WOOD DOVE (Turtur chalcospilos)

22-5-2019 MANA POOLS, ZIMBABWE - WIRE TAILED SWALLOW (Hirundo smithii)

The wire-tailed swallow is a small bird with a glossy blue back, white underparts, and a chestnut-colored cap, named for its two long, thin tail feathers. It is a fast, aerial insectivore, often seen flying low over water and building its mud nest on vertical surfaces, including human-made structures like bridges and buildings. This species is widespread across sub-Saharan Africa and southern Asia and has a "least concern" conservation status globally. 

Physical characteristics

Size: Measures approximately 18 cm (7.1 in) long.

Plumage: Features glossy blue upperparts, a chestnut forehead and crown, and clean white underparts.

Tail: Distinguished by two very long, thin, wire-like filaments on its outer tail feathers. Females and juveniles have shorter or no "wires" and a duller cap.

Habitat and behavior

Habitat: Prefers open country, such as grasslands, wetlands, and cultivated areas, particularly near water.

Diet: An aerial insectivore that feeds on flying insects like flies, wasps, and termites.

Flight: A very fast flyer that often swoops low over water. 

Nesting and reproduction

Nest: Builds a neat, half-bowl-shaped nest from mud, which is placed on vertical surfaces. Nests are often found under cliff ledges or on man-made structures like bridges, buildings, and culverts.

Territorial: Nests are typically solitary and territorial, unlike some colonial swallow species.

Eggs and incubation: Lays a clutch of 2-4 eggs in Africa and up to 5 in Asia. The female primarily incubates the eggs.

Parental care: Both parents feed the chicks, with the female providing more food. 

Distribution and conservation

Distribution: Found in sub-Saharan Africa and southern Asia. Some populations are resident, while others migrate seasonally.

Conservation status: Globally listed as "least concern" by the IUCN, although some regional statuses may vary.

Threats: The introduction of man-made nest sites has, in fact, benefited this species. 

23-5-2019 MANA POOLS, ZIMBABWE - COMMON DWARF MONGOOSE (Helogale parvula)

The common dwarf mongoose (Helogale parvula) is a mongoose species native to Angola, northern Botswana, northern Namibia, KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa, Zambia and East Africa. It is part of the genus Helogale, along with the Ethiopian dwarf mongoose.

The common dwarf mongoose has soft fur ranging from yellowish red to very dark brown. It has a large pointed head, small ears, a long tail, short limbs and long claws. With a body length of 16–23 cm (6.3–9.1 in) and a weight of 213–341 g (7.5–12.0 oz), it is Africa's smallest member of the order Carnivora.

Common dwarf mongoose in the Sabi Sand Game Reserve, South Africa

The common dwarf mongoose ranges from East to southern Central Africa, from Eritrea and Ethiopia to the provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga in the Republic of South Africa. It inhabits primarily dry grassland, open forests and bushland up to an elevation of 2,000 m (6,600 ft). It is especially common in areas with many termite mounds, its favorite sleeping place. It avoids dense forests and deserts.

The main predators of dwarf mongoose are predatory birds such as raptors and marabou storks, reptiles such as snakes and monitor lizards, and other carnivorous mammals such as jackals and larger mongooses.

A mutualistic relationship has evolved between the dwarf mongoose and hornbills, in which hornbills seek out the mongooses in order for the two species to forage together, and to warn each other of nearby birds of prey and other predators.

It is a social animal, with an average group size of twelve individuals,but larger packs can exceed thirty members. Packs are organized around a strict hierarchy, with females holding higher positions than males within each age class. Each pack is structured around a single breeding pair, the breeding female of which holds the highest social position while her mate holds the second highest. Younger members and immigrant individuals do not typically reproduce, but instead care for and feed juveniles. Other females may reproduce during good conditions, but their litters rarely survive to adulthood. The breeding pair of a dwarf mongoose colony is given priority access to food and protection from subordinate members, and rarely has to defend against predators. The breeding male is most often responsible for suppressing reproduction among other colony members by confronting them directly when this is attempted, typically with a low-intensity threat posture, which causes the pair to cease their attempted reproduction and retreat. The female of the pair often grooms the alpha male afterwards as an appeasement behavior.

Dispersal and the funding of new packs are relatively rare, and group splits occur most often when the dominant female dies. Non-breeders occasionally transfer between different packs, typically at their second or third year of age and during the rain season, which can result in their obtaining a shorter "queue" for becoming part of the breeding pair of the new pack.

Dwarf mongooses tend to breed during the wet season, between November and May, where the breeding female may produce up to three litters, containing an average of four pups each after a gestation period of 49 to 53 days. The pups nurse for a period of 45 days, during which they may be nursed by subordinate females. Juveniles begin foraging alongside adults at around six weeks of age, and reach sexual maturity at three years of life. Their maximum lifespan is around 18 years.

The primary diet of the common dwarf mongoose consists of invertebrates, chiefly insects such as beetle larvae, termites, grasshoppers and crickets, alongside spiders and scorpions. Secondary food sources include small vertebrates, eggs, and fruit.

23-5-2019 MANA POOLS, ZIMBABWE - BROWN SNAKE EAGLE (Circaetus cinereus)

23-5-2019 MANA POOLS, ZIMBABWE - AFRICAN MONARCH BUTTERFLY (Danaus chrysippus ssp orientis)

Danaus chrysippus, known as the African Monarch, is a common butterfly which is widespread in Asia and Africa. The African Monarch is believed to be one of the first butterflies to be used in art. A 3500 year old Egyptian fresco in Luxor features the oldest illustration of this species.

22-5-2019 MANA POOLS, ZIMBABWE - SOUTHERN GROUND HORNBILL (Bucorvus leadbeateri)

The southern ground hornbill (Bucorvus leadbeateri) is one of two species of ground hornbill, both of which are found solely within Africa, and is the largest species in the hornbill order worldwide. It can be found in the southern regions of Africa, ranging from Kenya to South Africa. Within these regions, they inhabit both woodlands and savannas. The other species of the genus Bucorvus is the Abyssinian ground hornbill, B. abyssinicus.

Southern ground hornbills are carnivorous and hunt mostly on the ground. Their food ranges from insects to small vertebrates. Their nests are often found in high tree cavities or other shallow cavities, such as rock holes in cliff faces. These birds are a long-lived species, having lifespans in the range of 50–60 years, and up to 70 in captivity. In relation to their long lives, they do not reach sexual maturity until 4–6 years old, and begin breeding around 10 years old. Their sex can be identified by the colour of their throats: the male's is pure red and the female's is a deep violet-blue.

Southern ground hornbills are a culturally pervasive and important species in southern Africa. Kruger National Park, located within South Africa, lists southern ground hornbills as one of their 'Big Six' bird species. However, their numbers have been declining, due in part to persecution, habitat destruction, cultural beliefs, and other factors. They are listed globally as 'Vulnerable' by the IUCN as of 2018, and as 'Endangered' in South Africa, Lesotho, Namibia and Eswatini. This enormous, sociable, ground-loving hornbill is easily recognized. 

The adult male has an extensive brilliant red face and throat wattles, while the adult female has purple-blue skin in the center of the red throat patch. The immature is scruffy with yellowish facial skin. In flight, this huge bird is black with extensive white wingtips. Family groups walk slowly through bushy savanna and grassland, foraging for large invertebrates and small vertebrates. In the early morning, dominant pairs duet with a deep-bass booming, “oooh..oooh..ooh-oh”, which can be heard several kilometers away.

22-5-2019 MANA POOLS, ZIMBABWE - AFRICAN SAVANNA ELEPHANT (Loxodonta Africana)

The African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), also known as the African savanna elephant, is a species of elephant native to sub-Saharan Africa. It is one of three extant elephant species and, along with the African forest elephant, one of two extant species of African elephant. It is the largest living terrestrial animal, with fully grown bulls reaching an average shoulder height of 3.04–3.36 metres (10.0–11.0 ft) and a body mass of 5.2–6.9 tonnes (5.7–7.6 short tons); the largest recorded specimen had a shoulder height of 3.96 metres (13.0 ft) and an estimated body mass of 10.4 tonnes (11.5 short tons). The African bush elephant is characterised by its long prehensile trunk with two finger-like processes; a convex back; large ears which help reduce body heat; and sturdy tusks that are noticeably curved. The skin is grey with scanty hairs, and bending cracks which support thermoregulation by retaining water.

The African bush elephant inhabits a variety of habitats such as forests, grasslands, woodlands, wetlands and agricultural land. It is a mixed herbivore feeding mostly on grasses, creepers, herbs, leaves, and bark. The average adult consumes about 150 kg (330 lb) of vegetation and 230 L (51 imp gal; 61 US gal) of water each day. A social animal, the African bush elephant often travels in herds composed of cows and their offspring. Adult bulls usually live alone or in small bachelor groups. During the mating season, males go through a process called musth, a period of high testosterone levels and heightened aggression. For females, the menstrual cycle lasts three to four months, and gestation around 22 months, the longest of any mammal.

Since 2021, the African bush elephant has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. It is threatened foremost by habitat destruction, and in parts of its range also by poaching for meat and ivory. Between 2003 and 2015, the illegal killing of 14,606 African bush elephants was reported by rangers across 29 range countries. Chad is a major transit country for smuggling of ivory in West Africa. This trend was curtailed by raising penalties for poaching and improving law enforcement. Poaching of the elephant has dated back to the 1970s and 80s, which were considered the largest killings in history. In human culture, elephants have been extensively featured in literature, folklore and media, and are most valued for their large tusks in many places.