19-3-2015 JURONG, SINGAPORE - GREY HERON (Ardea cinerea)

With its long legs and elegant neck the Gray Heron strikes a regal pose as it stands motionless in shallow water, waiting to strike at unsuspecting fish. 

During the breeding season, these large herons join treetop breeding colonies where they showcase their exquisite breeding plumes in courtship displays and work tirelessly to feed a nest full of chattering, insatiable chicks. Gray Heron, found in Europe, Asia, and Africa, is one of three very similar herons worldwide, together with Great Blue Heron of North America and Cocoi Heron of South America.

18-3-2015 SINGAPORE - ASIAN KOEL (MALE) (Eudynamys scolopaceu)

The Asian koel (Eudynamys scolopaceus) is a member of the cuckoo order of birds, the Cuculiformes. It is found in the Indian Subcontinent, China, and Southeast Asia. It forms a superspecies with the closely related black-billed koels, and Pacific koels which are sometimes treated as subspecies. The Asian koel like many of its related cuckoo kin is a brood parasite that lays its eggs in the nests of crows and other hosts, who raise its young. They are unusual among the cuckoos in being largely frugivorous as adults. The name koel is echoic in origin with several language variants. The bird is a widely used symbol in Indian and Nepali poetry.

29-3-2017 TARCOLES RIVER, COSTA RICA - TURQUOISE BROWED MOTMOT (Eumomota superciliosa)

The turquoise-browed motmot (Eumomota superciliosa ) also known as Torogoz, is a colourful, medium-sized bird of the motmot family, Momotidae. It inhabits Central America from south-east Mexico (mostly the Yucatán Peninsula), to Costa Rica, where it is common and not considered threatened. It lives in fairly open habitats such as forest edge, gallery forest and scrubland. It is more conspicuous than other motmots, often perching in the open on wires and fences. From these perches it scans for prey, such as insects and small reptiles. White eggs (3–6) are laid in a long tunnel nest in an earth bank or sometimes in a quarry or fresh-water well. Its name originates from the turquoise color of its brow. It is the national bird of both El Salvador and Nicaragua, where it is known as "Torogoz" and "Guardabarranco" respectively.

The bird is 34 cm (13 in) long and weighs 65 g (2.3 oz). It has a mostly grey-blue body with a rufous back and belly. There is a bright blue strip above the eye and a blue-bordered black patch on the throat. The flight feathers and upperside of the tail are blue. The tips of the tail feathers are shaped like rackets and the bare feather shafts are longer than in other motmots. Although it is often said that motmots pluck the barbs off their tail to create the racketed shape, this is not true; the barbs are weakly attached and fall off due to abrasion with substrates and with routine preening.

Unlike most bird species, where only males express elaborate traits, the turquoise-browed motmot expresses the extraordinary racketed tail in both sexes. Research indicates that the tail has evolved to function differently for the sexes. Males apparently use their tail as a sexual signal, as males with longer tails have greater pairing success and reproductive success. In addition to this function, the tail is used by both sexes in a wag-display, whereby the tail is moved back-and-forth in a pendulous fashion. The wag-display is performed in a context unrelated to mating: both sexes perform the wag-display in the presence of a predator, and the display is thought to confer naturally selected benefits by communicating to the predator that it has been seen and that pursuit will not result in capture. This form of interspecific communication is referred to as a pursuit-deterrent signal.

The call is nasal, croaking and far-carrying.

The turquoise-browed motmot is a well-known bird in its range. It has acquired a number of local names including guardabarranco ("ravine-guard") in Nicaragua, Torogoz in El Salvador (based on its call) and pájaro reloj ("clock bird") in the Yucatán, based on its habit of wagging its tail like a pendulum. In Costa Rica it is known as momoto cejiceleste or the far-less flattering pájaro bobo ("foolish bird"), owing to its tendency to allow humans to come very near it without flying away.

28-3-2017 TARCOLES RIVER COSTA RICA - YELLOW CROWNED NIGHT HERON (JUVENILE) (Nyctanassa violacea)

The Yellow-crowned Night Heron (Nyctanassa violacea) is a stocky wading bird, with a robust build and a notable large head in proportion to its body. It possesses a hefty bill, set deep under its eyes, and exhibits a wingspan of 101 to 112 cm. The species displays sexual dimorphism, with females slightly smaller than males.

Adults are characterized by a smooth grey-blue body with a black scaled pattern on the wings. Their long legs, which turn coral, pink, or red during courtship, are initially yellow. The head is strikingly black and glossy, with white cheeks and a pale yellow crown that extends from the bill, between the eyes, to the back of the head. This distinctive feature gives the bird its common name. In flight, the Yellow-crowned Night Heron can be distinguished by its long, slow wing beats and legs that extend straight below the tail.

This heron favors shallow waters such as marshes, wooded swamps, and lakeshores for inland populations, and thickets, mangroves, and cliff-bound coasts for coastal populations. It is also found in periodically flooded areas and tolerates a range of water types from fresh to brackish and saline.

The Yellow-crowned Night Heron is endemic to the Americas, with a distribution that closely follows the availability of crustaceans. Its range extends from the southeastern United States to Peru and Brazil in coastal regions.

This species is known for its nocturnal feeding habits, particularly during the breeding season when it feeds its young. It is territorial when foraging but will tolerate others at a safe distance. The heron selects prey visually, employing various hunting strategies, including stalking and standing still before lunging with its bill.

The heron's vocal repertoire includes a loud, sharp squawk used as an alarm or aggression call, a soft chu-chu-chu by begging chicks, and a range of calls during courtship, such as the yup-yup greeting and a concluding whoop from the male.

Breeding is synchronized with the emergence of crabs in spring, varying geographically. The heron forms mating pairs, with some arriving at breeding grounds already paired. Nesting occurs in trees, bushes, or on rock ledges, with both parents involved in nest-building and care of the young.

Juvenile Yellow-crowned Night Herons can be confused with juvenile Black-crowned Night Herons. However, the former tend to stand straighter, have heavier bills, longer legs, and finer spots and streaks on their plumage.

The diet is predominantly crustaceans, with crabs and crayfish being the mainstay. It also consumes insects, fish, worms, amphibians, molluscs, lizards, snakes, small rodents, and birds. The heron's bill size and shape are adapted to the specific prey available in its region.

The Yellow-crowned Night Heron is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, indicating a stable population trend. However, it faces threats such as habitat loss, human disturbance, and in some regions, illegal hunting. Conservation efforts are generally part of broader wetland conservation projects.

28-3-2017 TARCOLES RIVER, COSTA RICA - OSPREY (Pandion haliaetus)

The osprey, known by various monikers such as sea hawk, river hawk, and fish hawk, is a diurnal raptor with a cosmopolitan range. This large bird of prey boasts a length exceeding 60 cm (24 in) and a wingspan reaching 180 cm (71 in). Its upperparts are cloaked in a rich brown, while its head and underparts are adorned with a more subdued greyish hue.

When identifying an osprey, look for its distinctive white head marked with a dark eye mask that extends to the neck's sides. Its eyes are a captivating golden to brown, and its bill is a stark black tipped with a blue cere. The osprey's feet are an intriguing white, contrasted with black talons. In flight, its long, narrow wings with finger-like feathers and a shorter fifth feather give it a unique silhouette.

The osprey is quite adaptable, making its home in a variety of habitats as long as they are in proximity to water bodies that can provide an ample supply of fish.

This raptor graces all continents with its presence, save for the icy expanse of Antarctica. In South America, it is seen only as a non-breeding migrant.

Ospreys are known for their remarkable fishing prowess, diving into water bodies to catch their prey with their reversible outer toes and barbed talons. They are also known to be monogamous, often mating for life.

The osprey's vocalizations consist of a series of sharp whistles, often described as "cheep, cheep" or "yewk, yewk." When its nest is threatened, it may emit a frantic "cheereek!"

Ospreys typically breed near freshwater or brackish waters. They construct large nests made of sticks and other materials, where they lay two to four eggs. The eggs are incubated for about 35–43 days before hatching.

The osprey is unique in its family, Pandionidae, and thus has no very close similar species. However, its size and shape may sometimes be confused with various members of the Buteo or Falco genera from a distance.

The osprey's diet is almost exclusively composed of fish, which it catches with a spectacular plunge-dive. It has keen eyesight adapted for detecting underwater prey from above the surface.

The osprey is currently listed as Least Concern by the IUCN, with a large and stable global population. However, regional declines have been noted in some areas, such as South Australia.

28-3-2017 CARARA NAT PARK, COSTA RICA - BLACK SPINY TAILED IGUANA (Ctenosaura similis)

Ctenosaura similis, commonly known as the black iguana or black spiny-tailed iguana, is a lizard native to Mexico, Central America, and some Colombian islands in the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean. It has been introduced to the United States in the state of Florida. It is the largest species in the genus Ctenosaura.

Black spiny-tailed iguanas are large lizards native to Mexico and Central America. They have distinctively black, keeled scales on their long tails, which gives them their common name. They have a crest of long spines that extends down the center of the back. Although coloration varies extremely among individuals of the same population, adults usually have a whitish-gray or tan ground color with a series of 4-12 well-defined dark dorsal bands that extend nearly to the ventral scales. Males also develop an orange color around the head and throat during breeding season with highlights of blue and peach on their jowls.

Black spiny-tailed iguanas range from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (Mexico) to northeastern Nicaragua and western Panama on the respective Atlantic and Pacific coasts. They are commonly found throughout Costa Rica, Honduras and have been reported in Colombia. These iguanas live in dry and moist forests and also occur in open terrains such as savanna, grassland, and shrubland. They can also be found on sandy beaches, in coastal lagoons, marshes, and near urban areas.

Black spiny-tailed iguanas are social and territorial animals that live in colonies. They are active during the day. Although mainly terrestrial, these iguanas are excellent climbers, and prefer rocky areas with plenty of crevices to hide in, rocks to bask on, and nearby trees to climb. They are fast-moving creatures that employ their speed to escape predators but will lash with their tails and bite if cornered.

Black spiny-tailed iguanas generally breed in spring. Males show dominance and interest by head bobbing and may chase the female until they can catch her. Within 8 to 10 weeks, the female will dig a nest and lay a clutch of up to 30 eggs. The eggs hatch 90 days later and the hatchlings dig their way out of the sand. The young are typically green in color with brown markings, although all brown hatchlings have been recorded as well.

28-3-2017 CARARA NAT PARK, COSTA RICA - GROOVE BILLED ANI (Crotophaga sulcirostris)

The Groove-billed Ani, Crotophaga sulcirostris, is a distinctive tropical bird belonging to the cuckoo family. It is characterized by its long tail and an impressively large, curved beak adorned with longitudinal grooves. This bird's plumage is entirely black, and it possesses a wingspan of 41-46 cm (16-18 in), with a body length of about 34 cm (13 in) and a weight ranging from 70–90 g (2.5–3.2 oz).

When identifying the Groove-billed Ani, look for its very long tail, which is nearly as long as its body, and its massive bill with grooves running the length of the upper mandible. In flight, this bird exhibits a pattern of quick, choppy flaps followed by short glides. It can be confused with the Smooth-billed Ani, but the two can be differentiated by their vocalizations and geographic range.

The Groove-billed Ani is typically found in open and semi-open landscapes, including pastures, savannas, and orchards. It thrives in these environments where it can forage and live in small communal groups.

This bird is a resident species across its range, which extends from southern Texas, central Mexico, and The Bahamas, through Central America, to northern Colombia and Venezuela, as well as coastal regions of Ecuador and Peru. It retreats from the northernmost parts of its range in Texas and northern Mexico during the winter months.

The Groove-billed Ani is a social creature, living in small groups consisting of one to five breeding pairs. These groups defend a shared territory and collaborate in nesting activities within a single communal nest.

8-1-2018 PEGO MARJAL, ALICANTE - GLOSSY IBIS (Plegadis falcinellus)

The Glossy Ibis, Plegadis falcinellus, is a wading bird of the family Threskiornithidae, known for its striking, sickle-shaped bill. This mid-sized ibis measures 48–66 cm in length, with a wingspan of 80–105 cm. Breeding adults boast reddish-brown bodies and iridescent bottle-green wings, while non-breeders and juveniles display a more subdued coloration. The species is characterized by a brownish bill, dark facial skin with blue-gray to cobalt blue borders, and red-brown legs. In flight, the ibis extends its neck and exhibits a graceful V formation.

When identifying the Glossy Ibis, look for its unique glossy feathers and the distinct shape of its bill. The bird's flight pattern is also a telltale sign, as it flies with its neck outstretched, unlike herons. Listen for its various croaks and grunts, particularly the hoarse grrrr sound during the breeding season.

The Glossy Ibis favors freshwater or brackish wetlands with tall, dense emergent vegetation such as reeds, papyrus, or rushes, and low trees or bushes. It can also be found in lagoons, floodplains, wet meadows, swamps, reservoirs, sewage ponds, rice paddies, and irrigated farmland. Coastal habitats like estuaries and salt marshes are less common for this species.

This ibis is the most widespread of its kind, breeding in warm regions across Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Americas. It is migratory, with European birds wintering in Africa and North American birds migrating southward. The species has been expanding its range, with increasing numbers in Europe and successful breeding in Britain as of 2022.

The Glossy Ibis is known for its nomadic tendencies and dispersal movements post-breeding. Northern populations are migratory, traversing vast distances such as the Sahara Desert. The species nests in mixed colonies and forms large flocks during migration and winter. It often roosts communally with other species, sometimes in trees far from feeding areas.

The Glossy Ibis is relatively quiet, but it does produce a range of vocalizations, including croaks and grunts. A distinctive hoarse grrrr can be heard during the breeding season.

Nesting occurs above water on platforms of twigs and vegetation, with both parents incubating the 3 to 4 eggs laid. Chicks leave the nest after about a week but are fed by parents for another 6 to 7 weeks, fledging around 28 days old.

The ibis's diet is seasonal and opportunistic, feeding on a variety of prey such as insects, annelids, molluscs, crustaceans, and occasionally fish, amphibians, lizards, small snakes, and nestling birds.

8-1-2018 PEGO MARJAL, ALICANTE - LITTLE EGRET (Egretta garzetta)

The Little Egret, Egretta garzetta, is a dainty heron adorned in pure white plumage. It is characterized by a slender black beak, long black legs, and, notably in the western race, yellow feet. This elegant bird is a sight to behold with its graceful neck and poised stance.

Adult Little Egrets measure between 55–65 cm in length with a wingspan of 88–106 cm, and weigh 350–550 g. Their plumage is predominantly white, though some may exhibit bluish-grey coloration. Breeding adults boast ornate nape plumes reaching about 150 mm, along with distinctive feathers on the breast and elongated scapulars. The bill and lores are black, with greenish-grey skin at the base of the lower mandible and around the eye, which houses a yellow iris. Legs are black with contrasting yellow feet, though juveniles may have greenish-black legs and duller feet. The subspecies E. g. nigripes is distinguished by yellow skin between the bill and eye, and blackish feet.

The Little Egret frequents a variety of wetland habitats, from the shores of lakes and rivers to marshes and coastal regions. It is often found in open environments, such as mangroves, swamps, mudflats, and sandy beaches, as well as human-altered landscapes like rice fields.

The species has a broad breeding distribution across warm temperate to tropical regions of Asia, Africa, Australia, and Europe. Northern populations are migratory, wintering in Africa and southern Asia, while others remain as permanent residents in warmer areas.

Little Egrets are social yet territorial when feeding. They exhibit a range of foraging behaviors, from active chasing to patient ambush. Their movements are often in response to the presence of other animals, which may stir up prey.

The Little Egret's vocalizations include croaking and bubbling sounds at breeding colonies and a harsh alarm call when disturbed. These calls are similar to those of the Black-crowned Night Heron and the Cattle Egret.

Breeding colonies are often mixed with other water birds. Nests are platforms of sticks located in trees, shrubs, or reed beds. Clutches typically consist of three to five bluish-green eggs, incubated by both parents for about three weeks. The young fledge at approximately six weeks old.

The Little Egret can be confused with other white egrets, particularly the Snowy Egret, which shares some of its New World range. However, the Little Egret is larger and has more varied foraging strategies.

The diet is diverse, including fish, amphibians, small reptiles, mammals, birds, crustaceans, molluscs, insects, spiders, and worms. The Little Egret employs various hunting techniques, both in water and on land, to capture its prey.

The Little Egret is classified as "Least Concern" by the IUCN. Conservation measures in the 20th century have allowed populations to recover in Europe, and the species has been expanding its range. It is now successfully colonizing new areas, including the New World.

8-1-2018 ROTOVA, VALENCIA - EUROPEAN ROBIN (Erithacus rubecula)

The European robin (Erithacus rubecula), known simply as the robin or robin redbreast in Great Britain and Ireland, is a small insectivorous passerine bird, a member of the chat subfamily of the Old World flycatcher family. It is a plucky little bird, with a length of about 12.5–14.0 cm and a weight of 16–22 g. Both sexes are similarly adorned with an orange breast and face, lined with grey, brown upper-parts, and a whitish belly.

Adult robins can be identified by their orange breast and face, bordered by a bluish-grey on the sides of the neck and chest. The upperparts are brownish, or olive-tinged in British birds, and the belly is whitish. The bill and eyes are black. Juvenile robins are distinguishable by their spotted brown and white plumage, with patches of orange gradually appearing as they mature.

The European robin is a bird of diverse habitats, found in woodlands, gardens, and parks across its range. It is particularly associated with areas where the soil is dug or disturbed, allowing it easy access to its invertebrate prey.

This bird has a wide distribution across Europe, extending east to Western Siberia and south to North Africa. It is sedentary in most of its range except the far north, where it is migratory.

The robin is diurnal and is known for its boldness in human presence, often seen investigating gardeners at work. It is territorial, with males known to fiercely defend their territory. The robin's diet is primarily composed of insects and worms, but it will also consume berries and fruit, especially in autumn and winter.

The robin's song is a delightful fluting warble, more plaintive during the winter months. Both sexes sing, with the male's song typically starting before dawn and ending after dusk. Urban robins may sing at night, possibly to avoid noise pollution during the day.

Robins are versatile in their choice of nesting sites, often opting for unusual locations such as nooks in machinery or even discarded clothing. They typically lay two or three clutches of eggs per season, with the eggs being cream, buff, or white and speckled with reddish-brown.

The European robin is unique among the Erithacus genus, with its closest relatives being the Japanese robin and the Ryukyu robin, which are now placed in a different genus.

Robins primarily feed on insects, spiders, and worms. During colder months, their diet is supplemented with berries and fruit. They are also known to visit bird tables for seed mixtures and suet.

8-1-2018 PEGO MARJAL, ALICANTE - EUROPEAN STONECHAT (Saxicola rubicola)

This species is widely distributed across Europe, reaching as far east as Ukraine and the South Caucasus, and can also be found in parts of North Africa.

Stonechats are known for their lively presence, often perching conspicuously as they keep a vigilant eye on their surroundings. They exhibit a partial migratory pattern, with some populations moving southward to escape the colder winters.

The male stonechat's song is a delightful, high-pitched twitter, reminiscent of a dunnock's melody. Both sexes communicate with a distinctive call that evokes the sound of two stones being tapped together.

European stonechats are monogamous during the breeding season and commence their reproductive efforts at one year of age. They raise two to three broods per season, with the female constructing the nest and both parents tending to the young.

The European stonechat can be confused with the Siberian stonechat and the African stonechat, but genetic evidence supports their distinction as separate species.

These birds are adept insectivores, gleaning a variety of invertebrates from their environment to sustain themselves and their offspring.

The European stonechat does not currently face any significant conservation threats and enjoys a stable population across its range.

8-1-2018 PEGO MARJAL, ALICANTE - BLACK REDSTART (FEMALE) (Phoenicurus ochruros)

The Black Redstart (Phoenicurus ochruros) is a small, charismatic passerine bird, exhibiting a blend of dark and vibrant plumage. Males are distinguished by their dark grey to black upperparts and breast, with a striking orange-red rump and tail. Females and juveniles are more subdued in color, with grey to grey-brown feathers and the same vivid tail coloration that is the hallmark of the species.

Adult males are easily identified by their dark upperparts and black breast, contrasting with the orange-red lower rump and tail. The belly and undertail may vary from blackish-grey to orange-red, depending on the subspecies. Females and juveniles are less conspicuous, with overall greyer tones and a distinctive orange-red rump and tail. The presence of pale fringes on the secondaries forms a whitish wing panel in some subspecies.

The Black Redstart has adapted remarkably to urban environments, often found nesting in crevices or holes within buildings. Originally a dweller of stony mountainous regions, it now thrives in industrial areas with similar structural features.

This species is widely distributed across south and central Europe, Asia, and north-west Africa. It is a resident in milder regions, while populations in the northeast migrate to warmer areas during winter.

The Black Redstart is known for its robin-like movements, including quick ducks of the head and body, and frequent tail flicking. Males possess a rattling song and a tick call, adding to their distinctive presence.

28-3-2017 CARARA NAT PARK, COSTA RICA - NORTHERN GHOST BAT (Diclidurus albus)

The northern ghost bat can be distinguished from other members of its genus by the presence of a vestigial thumb with a near-absent claw. Amongst the northern ghost bat population, sexual dimorphism is present. Specifically, males tend to be slightly larger in size when compared to females. Diclidurus albus is intermediate in weight relative to other members of the family Emballonuridae.

The northern ghost bat has a widely shaped clavicle bone, with large areas of attachment for the pectoralis muscle. It also has a large glandular structure on its uropatagium. The functional significance of this glandular structure is thought to be analogous to that of wing sacs in other emballonurids. When breeding, the wing sacs of other emballonurids become enlarged to attract females.

The penis of the northern ghost bat does not employ a baculum, but rather, is composed of four cartilaginous bodies. It is about 5.5 mm long and 3.1 mm in diameter. The glans penis is white in color, and the prepuce is encased in a layer of short, fine hair. The testes are spindle-like in shape, symmetrical, and enclosed in a black tunica. In females, the ovaries are ovoid in shape and are roughly 2.8 mm long and 0.8 mm in diameter.

28-3-2017 CARARA NAT PARK, COSTA RICA - LEAST FLYCATCHER (Empidonax minimus)

The Least Flycatcher, known scientifically as Empidonax minimus, is a diminutive avian insectivore and the smallest member of the Empidonax genus found in eastern North America. This bird is characterized by its dull olive-gray upperparts and a notably brighter whitish underbelly compared to its congeners. It sports two distinctive white wing bars and has white eye rings that add to its identification. The beak of the Least Flycatcher is short, with a yellowish lower mandible. Adult birds typically measure between 12 to 14 cm in height, possess a wingspan ranging from 19 to 22 cm, and weigh around 10.3 grams. Juveniles resemble adults but have slightly darker wing bars tinged with tawny or olive hues.

To distinguish the Least Flycatcher from other similar species, one should pay close attention to its vocalizations and preferred habitats. Its wings are marked with two white bars, and it has white rings around its eyes. The bird's call, a piercing "che-bec" with the second syllable louder than the first, is a reliable identifier, especially when heard in its favored environments.

The Least Flycatcher frequents aspen groves, orchards, open woods, and shade trees. It breeds in deciduous or mixed forests, sometimes in coniferous stands, often near clearings or edges. In winter, it migrates to Central America, where it can be found in forest edges and secondary growth.

This species breeds in the Eastern Rockies of Canada, Central-North, and Northeastern United States. Come winter, it migrates to Central America, from Mexico to Panama, and can also be found in villages, city parks, and along rural roads within its range.

The Least Flycatcher is known for its territorial nature, with both males and females aggressively defending their breeding grounds. Males sing to establish and maintain territories, while females are more subdued but will defend the nest with vigor when necessary.

The bird's call is a distinctive, emphatic "che-bec," with the second syllable louder. Males sing this call repeatedly, especially in the morning, to defend their territory. Females use a "chweep" note for communication with their mate and offspring, and when defending the nest.

Breeding pairs of Least Flycatchers select sites based on the proximity of neighbors rather than habitat quality. The female weaves a tidy cup-shaped nest using grass, bark, spider webs, and other materials. She lays three to five creamy-white eggs, which she incubates for 13 to 16 days. Both parents feed the nestlings, which fledge at 12 to 17 days old.

The diet of the Least Flycatcher consists mainly of insects, including wasps, ants, beetles, caterpillars, and spiders. It forages by watching from a perch and catching insects mid-flight or from vegetation, often hovering to attack prey.

The Least Flycatcher is currently listed as Least Concern by the IUCN, indicating that it is not at immediate risk of population decline or habitat loss at a global scale.

29-3-2017 HOTEL BOUGANVILLEA, COSTA RICA - RUFOUS TAILED HUMMINGBIRD (Amazilia tzacatl)

The rufous-tailed hummingbird, Amazilia tzacatl, is a medium-sized member of the hummingbird family, Trochilidae, known for its distinctive chestnut-brown tail. This avian jewel measures between 9 to 11 cm in length and weighs around 5 grams, with males and females exhibiting slight variations in plumage.

Adult males of the nominate subspecies boast a green crown and upperparts, save for the chestnut-brown lores and uppertail coverts. The tail is predominantly chestnut-brown with bronze-green tips. The throat and upper breast shimmer with green, and the lower breast transitions to gray, leading to a white belly and chestnut-brown undertail coverts. Females have a paler gray lower breast and more pronounced scalloping on the throat. Juveniles display a cinnamon wash on the lower breast and sides, with cinnamon-tipped lower back and rump feathers. The bill is a striking combination of black and red, with the outer half of the maxilla black and the inner half red, while the mandible is red with a black tip.

This species thrives in open landscapes such as clearings, gardens, and forest edges, as well as in low, brushy secondary forests. It is also a frequent visitor to feeders.

The rufous-tailed hummingbird is found from east-central Mexico through Central America and Colombia, extending into Ecuador and Venezuela. It occupies a range of elevations from sea level up to 2,500 meters in Ecuador, though such high altitudes may be seasonal or local.

Renowned for its territorial nature, the rufous-tailed hummingbird is a fierce defender of feeding territories, including flower patches and feeders, where it will chase away other hummingbirds and large insects.

The species' vocalizations include a high, thin, and squeaky song composed of chirps and tsi sounds, as well as hard, smacking calls and dry chips that can merge into a rattling sound.

The rufous-tailed hummingbird is polygynous and may nest in loose colonies. The female single-handedly constructs a cup nest from plant fibers, leaves, and spiderwebs, adorned with lichens and mosses. She lays two white eggs, which she incubates for 15 to 19 days, with fledglings leaving the nest after another 18 to 22 days.

While there are several subspecies of the rufous-tailed hummingbird, they can be distinguished by size, bill shape, and coloration details. For example, A. t. handleyi is larger and darker, while A. t. fuscicaudata is smaller with a shorter bill.

 

The diet consists primarily of nectar and small insects. This hummingbird is a common sight in coffee and banana plantations and is known to frequent sugar water feeders.

The IUCN has classified the rufous-tailed hummingbird as Least Concern, with an estimated population of over five million mature individuals. The species may even benefit from certain human activities that create open spaces suitable for its habitat.

30-3-2017 HOTEL BOUGANVILLEA, COSTA RICA - CLAY COLOURED THRUSH (Turdus grayi)

The Clay-colored Thrush, Turdus grayi, is a bird of modest plumage, its feathers a subtle palette of brown hues, lighter on the flanks and faintly streaked on the throat. This bird, similar in size to the American Robin, measures approximately 23 to 27 centimeters in length and weighs between 74 to 76 grams. The young are distinguished by a faint mottling on their backs and underparts. Notable identification features include a greenish-yellow bill with a dark base, pinkish or flesh-colored legs, and reddish irises.

When identifying the Clay-colored Thrush, look for its brownish plumage, which is lighter below and lightest on the flanks. The throat bears faint streaks, and the bird's bill is greenish-yellow with a dark base. The legs are pinkish or flesh-colored, and the irises are a distinctive reddish color. Juveniles may exhibit faint mottling on their back and underparts.

The Clay-colored Thrush is a familiar sight in yards and gardens, much like its relatives the American Robin, the Eurasian Blackbird, and the Song Thrush. It thrives in a variety of habitats, from South Texas to northern Colombia, often found in human-altered landscapes where fruiting trees are present.

This bird's range extends from South Texas, where it is expanding its territory, to northern Colombia. It is predominantly found on the Atlantic slope west and north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, with an isolated population around Oaxaca City, Mexico.

7-1-2018 VILLALONGA RESERVOIR, VALENCIA - EURASIAN GREAT CORMORANT (Phalacrocorax carbo)

The great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), a robust seabird, is cloaked in predominantly black plumage. It is a member of the cormorant family, with a widespread distribution. The species exhibits considerable size variation across its range, with males generally larger than females. Notable features include a longish tail and a distinctive yellow throat-patch. During the breeding season, adults boast white patches on their thighs and throat.

To identify the great cormorant, look for its large size, heavy build, and thick bill. It lacks a crest and its plumage does not have a green tinge, distinguishing it from the common shag. In North America, it is bulkier than the double-crested cormorant and has less yellow on the throat and bill. The white thigh patches are a key identifier.

Great cormorants are found in a variety of aquatic environments including seas, estuaries, freshwater lakes, and rivers. They often nest in colonies close to these water bodies.

This species has a broad distribution, breeding across the Old World, Australia, and the Atlantic coast of North America. Northern populations tend to migrate southward in winter, seeking coasts rich in fish.

Great cormorants are generally silent but may emit guttural noises at breeding colonies. They are known for their wing-drying posture, often seen with wings outstretched to dry after diving.

Mostly silent, the great cormorant vocalizes with guttural sounds in the vicinity of its breeding colonies.

Great cormorants typically nest in colonies near wetlands, rivers, or sheltered inshore waters, often returning to the same site annually. Their nests are constructed from sticks and can be located in trees, on cliff ledges, or on predator-free ground. They lay clutches of three to five pale blue or green eggs, which are incubated for about 28 to 31 days.

These birds are piscivorous, diving to catch fish such as wrasses, sand smelt, flathead, and common soles. They exhibit seasonal dietary shifts, preferring larger fish in colder temperatures. Their foraging efficiency is influenced by the size of the prey rather than the quantity.

The great cormorant is currently listed as Least Concern by the IUCN. Conservation efforts have led to a population rebound, with approximately 1.2 million birds in Europe alone. However, their increasing numbers have led to conflicts with fisheries due to predation on fish stocks.

7-1-2018 LA FONT EN CARROS, VALENCIA - WHITE WAGTAIL (Motacilla alba)

The White Wagtail (Motacilla alba) is a small, elegant passerine bird, a member of the family Motacillidae, which includes pipits and longclaws. This slender bird measures between 16.5 to 19 cm in length, with East Asian subspecies reaching up to 21 cm. It is characterized by its long, constantly wagging tail, a behavior that has become synonymous with the genus. Weighing an average of 25 g, the White Wagtail can live up to 12 years in the wild.

Adult White Wagtails exhibit a distinctive plumage with a combination of grey, black, and white. The bird's upper parts are generally grey, with a white face, belly, and breast. Males during the breeding season may show a darker back, and the species is known for its sharp, brisk call and more melodious song during courtship.

The White Wagtail is commonly found in open country, often in close proximity to human habitation and water sources. It shows a preference for bare areas which facilitate the sighting and pursuit of prey. This bird has adapted well to urban environments, utilizing paved areas such as parking lots for foraging.

This species has a vast breeding range across Europe, the Asian Palearctic, parts of North Africa, and has a presence in Alaska. It is a migratory bird, with populations moving to Africa and parts of Asia during the winter. In Great Britain and Ireland, the darker subspecies known as the Pied Wagtail is more prevalent.

The White Wagtail is known for its perpetual tail wagging, a behavior that remains somewhat enigmatic but is thought to be a signal of vigilance to predators. It is a monogamous bird that defends its breeding territory with determination.

The call of the White Wagtail is a sharp "chisick," softer than that of the Pied Wagtail. Its song is more structured and is used by males to attract females rather than to mark territory.

White Wagtails are monogamous breeders, with both sexes contributing to nest building. The nest is often placed in crevices or holes near water or in human-made structures. The species lays three to eight cream-colored, speckled eggs, which both parents incubate. Chicks fledge after 12 to 15 days and continue to be fed for a week thereafter.

The Pied Wagtail, particularly the subspecies M. a. yarrellii, is similar but has a darker back and is found in Great Britain and Ireland. Other subspecies vary in wing, back, and head coloration.

The diet of the White Wagtail primarily consists of insects and small invertebrates, including beetles, dragonflies, flies, and crustaceans. It continues to feed on insects even in winter, unlike many other insectivorous birds in temperate climates.

7-1-2018 LA FONT EN CARROS, VALENCIA - MEADOW PIPIT (Anthus pratensis)

The Meadow Pipit, Anthus pratensis, is a small, unassuming bird of the 

passerine family. It measures between 14.5 to 15 cm in length and weighs a mere 15 to 22 grams. Its plumage is predominantly brown above and buff below, with darker streaks adorning most of its body. The tail is brown with narrow white edges, and it stands on pale pinkish-yellow legs. A distinctive feature is its notably long hind claw, surpassing the length of its other hind toes.

When identifying the Meadow Pipit, look for its streaked appearance and listen for its weak "tsi-tsi" call. In flight, observe its song, which is a simple, repetitive tune that increases in pace towards the end. The bird's small size and long hind claw are also key identification markers.