21-3-2025 WATER GARDENS, SIGIRIYA - MUGGER CROCODILE (Crocodylus palustris)

The Mugger crocodile has the broadest snout among living crocodiles. It has a powerful tail and webbed feet. Its visual, hearing, and smelling senses are acute. Hatchlings are pale olive with black spots. Adults are dark olive to grey or brown. The head is rough without any ridges and has large scutes around the neck that are well separated from the back. Scutes usually form 4, rarely 6 longitudinal series and 16 or 17 transverse series. The limbs have keeled scales with serrated fringes on the outer edges, and the outer toes are extensively webbed.

The mugger crocodile occurs in the Indian subcontinent as well as surrounding countries: Sri Lanka in the east, Iran in the west, and also Pakistan and Nepal. This species is found in freshwater lakes, marshes, and ponds, and has also adapted well to reservoirs, human-made ponds, irrigation canals, and coastal saltwater lagoons. This crocodile likes shallow water no more than 5 m deep, and it avoids fast-flowing rivers. It will sometimes bury itself in the mud to avoid the searing heat in India in the dry season.

21-3-2025 WATER GARDENS, SIGIRIYA - TUFTED GREY LANGUR (Semnopithecus priam)

The tufted gray langur (Semnopithecus priam), also known as Madras gray langur, and Coromandel sacred langur, is an Old World monkey, one of the species of langurs. This, like other gray langurs, is mainly a leaf-eating monkey. It is found in southeast India and Sri Lanka. It is one of three Semnopithecus species named after characters from The Iliad, S. hector and S. ajax being the others. In Sinhala it is known as හැලි වදුරා (Heli wandura)

Males are larger than females. The average adult weighs 12.8 kg (28 lb) with a head-to-body length of 61.1 cm (24.1 in). The Indian subspecies is somewhat larger bodied than the Sri Lankan which typically weigh between 6.8 and 13.4 kg (15 and 30 lb).[6] Despite its somewhat slighter size there, the tufted gray langur is the largest native primate on Sri Lanka based on average sizes.

In Sri Lankan subspecies, dorsal area gray to brownish gray in color, getting darker with the age. Underparts are light grayish. Short whitish beard and sideburns present. The hairs of the crown form a distinct pointed tuft or crest, that meets at a central point, hence the name. Black eyebrows project outward. Head scarcely paler or not paler than back. Hands and feet are same color as limbs.

In Sri Lanka, tufted gray langurs are abundant in dry zone forests and also within human dwellings. Many numerous troops are found at archeologically important areas, such as Polonnaruwa, Dambulla, Anuradhapura, and Sigiriya. The animal is also found in southward of the island, such as Hambantota, Yala National Park, and Tissamaharama.

21-3-2025 WATER GARDENS, SIGIRIYA - INDIAN BLUE PEAFOWL (MALE) (Pavo cristatus)

The Indian peafowl, also known as the common peafowl or blue peafowl, is a species native to the Indian subcontinent. It is a bird of resplendent beauty, with the male, or peacock, showcasing a spectacular array of iridescent colors. The peacock's most striking feature is its fan-like crest of spatula-tipped wire-like feathers and the long train made up of elongated upper-tail covert feathers adorned with colorful eyespots. These feathers can be raised into a fan and quivered during courtship displays. Despite their size, peacocks are capable of flight. The female, or peahen, is more subdued in coloration, with a white face, iridescent green lower neck, and overall dull brown plumage.

The Indian peafowl is unmistakable within its range. The male has a metallic blue crown, a fan-shaped crest, and a spectacular train with eye-spot markings. The peahen is smaller, with a rufous-brown head, mottled upper body, and dark brown lower parts. The loud "pia-ow" or "may-awe" calls are distinctive and often indicate the presence of predators.

21-3-2025 WATER GARDENS, SIGIRIYA - CRIMSON MARSH GLIDER DRAGONFLY (rithemis aurora)

Trithemis aurora, the crimson marsh glider, is a species of dragonfly in the family Libellulidae. It is a common and widely distributed species found throughout the year across the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.

The male of this small species is distinctly different from the female. The male has a reddish-brown face, with eyes that are crimson above and brown on the sides. The thorax is red with a fine, purple pruinescence. The abdomen, the base of which is swollen, is crimson with a violet tinge. The wings are transparent with crimson venation and the base has a broad amber patch. The wing spots are a dark reddish-brown and the legs are black.

The female has an olivaceous or bright reddish-brown face with eyes that are purplish-brown above and grey below. The thorax is olivaceous with brown median and black lateral stripes. The abdomen is reddish-brown with median and lateral black markings. The black markings are confluent at the end of each segment and enclose a reddish-brown spot. The wings are transparent with brown tips. The venation is bright yellow to brown and basal amber markings are pale. The wing spots are a dark brown and the lags are dark grey with narrow yellow stripes.

It is commonly found in weedy tanks and ponds, marshes, channels, and slow flowing streams and rivers in the lowlands and mid-hills. It breeds in streams, rivers, canals, ponds and tanks.

21-3-2025 WATER GARDENS, SIGIRIYA - BENGAL TRUMPET (Thunbergia grandiflora)

Thunbergia grandiflora is an evergreen vine in the family Acanthaceae. It is native to China, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indochina and Myanmar and widely naturalised elsewhere. Common names include Bengal clockvine, Bengal trumpet, blue skyflower, blue thunbergia, blue trumpetvine, clockvine, skyflower and skyvine.

Plants may grow to about 20 metres in height and have a long root system with a deep tap root, that can be as large as a small car. The stalked, opposite leaves, which have a rough surface, are quite variable in shape. They may be triangular or ovate and the margins may be toothed, lobed or entire. Length is up to 200 mm and width is up to 60 mm, which are typically smaller than the very similar T. laurifolia.

The blue to mauve flowers are about 8 cm across with a 4 cm long tube that is pale yellow inside. These are followed by pods containing seeds that are ejected several metres upon ripening. Plants also reproduce from segments that are washed down watercourses.

With a minimum temperature of 10–13 °C (50–55 °F), this plant is cultivated as a houseplant in temperate regions, and has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

The species has become a serious environmental weed in Australia on disturbed land along watercourses and in the wet tropics where it smothers other vegetation. It is commonly seen north of Sydney where it has been cultivated for many years.

21-3-2025 WATER GARDENS, SIGIRIYA - ASIAN OPENBILL STORK (Anastomus oscitans)

The Asian openbill or Asian openbill stork (Anastomus oscitans) is a large wading bird in the stork family Ciconiidae. This distinctive stork is found mainly in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. It is greyish or white with glossy black wings and tail. Adults have a gap between the arched upper mandible and recurved lower mandible which is thought to be an adaptation that aids in the handling of snails, their main prey. Young birds are born without this gap. Although resident within their range, they make long distance movements in response to weather and food availability.

The Asian openbill stork is predominantly greyish (non-breeding season) or white (breeding season) with glossy black wings and tail that have a green or purple sheen. The name is derived from the distinctive gap formed between the recurved lower and arched upper mandible of the beak in adult birds. Young birds do not have this gap. The cutting edges of the mandible have a fine brush like structure that is thought to give them better grip on the shells of snails. The tail consists of twelve feathers and the preen gland has a tuft. The mantle is black and the bill is horn-grey. At a distance, they can appear somewhat like a white stork or Oriental stork. The short legs are pinkish to grey, reddish prior to breeding. Non-breeding birds have a smoky grey wings and back instead of white. Young birds are brownish-grey and have a brownish mantle. Like other storks, the Asian openbill is a broad-winged soaring bird, which relies on moving between thermals of hot air for sustained flight. They are usually found in flocks but single birds are not uncommon. Like all storks, it flies with its neck outstretched. It is relatively small for a stork and stands at 68 cm height (81 cm long).

The usual foraging habitats are inland wetlands and are only rarely seen along river banks and tidal flats. On agricultural landscapes, birds forage in crop fields, irrigation canals, and in seasonal marshes. Birds may move widely in response to habitat conditions. Young birds also disperse widely after fledging. Individuals ringed at Bharatpur in India have been recovered 800 km east and a bird ringed in Thailand has been recovered 1500 km west in Bangladesh. Storks are regularly disoriented by lighthouses along the southeast coast of India on overcast nights between August and September.] The species is very rare in the Sind and Punjab regions of Pakistan, but widespread and common in India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand and Cambodia. It has recently expanded its range into southwestern China. In Thirunavaya Lotus Lake Wetland Malappuram district of Kerala state in India, they are mostly seen in the months of September–February season.

Asian Openbills appear to be susceptible to dying during hailstorms. In Xishuangbanna, in south China, 45 Asian Openbills were counted dead after a hailstorm, but carcasses of other bird species were not seen.

21-3-2025 WATER GARDENS, SIGIRIYA - INDIAN POND HERON (Ardeola grayii)

The Indian Pond Heron, known colloquially as the paddybird, is a modestly sized heron with a penchant for concealment. Its plumage is a mélange of streaked olive and brown, which serves as excellent camouflage against the marshy landscapes it frequents. However, when this bird takes flight, it reveals a striking contrast with its bright white wings, a feature that is otherwise hidden when at rest.

This stocky bird possesses a short neck and a robust, thick bill. The back is buff-brown, and during the summer, adults boast elongated neck feathers. When in flight, the Indian Pond Heron is unmistakable due to the white of its wings. It bears a resemblance to the squacco herons but is distinguished by its darker back. Observers should note that individuals may occasionally exhibit red legs during the breeding season, though this is not a common trait.

The Indian Pond Heron is often found stalking prey at the edges of small water bodies or roosting near human habitations. It is adept at utilizing floating vegetation to access deeper waters and is known to frequent marshy wetlands.

21-3-2025 MINNERIYA, SRI LANKA - CRESTED HONEY BUZZARD (JUVENILE) (Pernis ptilorhynchus)

The Crested honey buzzard appears long-necked with a small head resembling that of a pigeon. It has a long tail and a short head crest. It is brown above, but not as dark as the European honey buzzard, and paler below. A dark throat stripe is present. Unusually for a large bird of prey, the sexes can be distinguished. The male has a blue-grey head with a brown iris, while the female's head is brown and the iris is yellow. She is slightly larger and darker than the male. The male has two black bands in the tail and three black underwing bands, while the female has three black tail bands and four narrower black underwing bands. The juvenile has extensive black primary tips with narrower underwing bands. It has a yellow cere at the base of the bill, and a dark iris. The coloration and the tail pattern of the species are highly variable.

Crested honey buzzards spend summer in Siberia and Japan, and winter in tropical Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent. Elsewhere, these birds are more or less resident. Crested honey buzzards prefer to live in well-forested lowland and hilly areas that are broken by open glades. In South and Southeast Asia, they are sometimes found in small groves near villages.

The Crested Honey Buzzard (Pernis ptilorhynchus), a medium-sized raptor of the Accipitridae family, measures between 57–60 cm in length. Known also as the Oriental, Asiatic, or Eastern Honey Buzzard, this bird is distinguished by its diet, primarily the larvae of bees and wasps from honeycombs. It exhibits a unique elongated head and a groove in the tongue, specialized for its feeding habits. A dense feathering on the head and neck offers protection against stings.

ed Honey Buzzard can be identified by its brown upperparts, paler underparts, and a dark throat stripe. Males have a blue-grey head with brown irises, while females have a brown head with yellow irises. The male's tail features two black bands, and the female's tail has three. In flight, the bird's long neck and small head, reminiscent of a pigeon, are noticeable. The juvenile resembles the Nisaetus hawk-eagles, a possible example of Batesian mimicry.

This species favors well-forested regions with open spaces, thriving from sea level to elevations of 1,800 meters. It is adept at navigating both lowland and hilly terrains interspersed with glades.

 

The Crested Honey Buzzard migrates to Siberia and Japan for breeding in the summer, while wintering in Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent. Some populations are year-round residents in these wintering areas.

The Crested Honey Buzzard is typically solitary or seen in pairs, often soaring or perched atop trees. It is generally silent, save for the occasional high-pitched whistle. Its flight is characterized by deep, elastic wingbeats and high upstrokes, with wings held flat or slightly arched.

This species is relatively quiet, sometimes emitting a single, high-pitched screaming whistle.

Breeding occurs in woodlands, with the bird remaining inconspicuous outside of its spring mating display, which includes wing clapping and roller coaster flights. The nest is a platform of sticks lined with leaves, and the female usually lays two variable-colored eggs.

Juvenile Crested Honey Buzzards may be confused with Nisaetus hawk-eagles due to their similar plumage, a potential case of Batesian mimicry.

The Crested Honey Buzzard specializes in feeding on larvae from the nests of social bees and wasps, occasionally consuming other insects, small birds, reptiles, and frogs.

The IUCN lists the Crested Honey Buzzard as Least Concern, with an estimated population ranging from 100,000 to 1,000,000 individuals. However, climate change poses a potential threat to its migratory patterns due to changing wind conditions.

21-3-2025 MINNERIYA, SRILANKA - ORIENTAL GARDEN LIZARD (Calotes versicolor) COURTESY OF MRS VALERIE FISHER

The oriental garden lizard (Calotes versicolor), also called the eastern garden lizard, Indian garden lizard, common garden lizard, bloodsucker or changeable lizard, is an agamid lizard found widely distributed in Indo-Malaya. It has also been introduced in many other parts of the world.

Calotes versicolor is an insectivore, and the male gets a bright red throat in the breeding season. It measures over 10 cm (3.9 in) in length snout-to-vent. Total length including the tail is up to 37 cm (14.5 in). Two small groups of spines, perfectly separated from each other, above each tympanum. Dorsal crest moderately elevated on the neck and anterior part of the trunk, extending on to the root of the tail in large individuals, and gradually disappearing on the middle of the trunk in younger ones. No fold in front of the shoulder, but the scales behind the lower jaw are much smaller than the others; gular sac not developed. From thirty-nine to forty-three series of scales round the middle of the trunk. 

The hind foot (measured from the heel to the extremity of the fourth toe) is not much longer than the head in the adult, whilst it is considerably longer in the young. The coloration is very variable, sometimes uniform brownish or greyish-olive or yellowish. Generally broad brown bands across the back, interrupted by a yellowish lateral band. Black streaks radiate from the eye, and some of them are continued over the throat, running obliquely backwards, belly frequently with greyish longitudinal stripes, one along the median line being the most distinct; young and half-grown specimens have a dark, black-edged band across the inter-orbital region.

The ground-colour is generally a light brownish olive, but the lizard can change it to bright red, to black, and to a mixture of both. This change is sometimes confined to the head, at other times diffused over the whole body and tail. A common state in which it may be seen (as stated by T. C. Jerdon) is, seated on a hedge or bush, with the tail and limbs black, head and neck yellow picked out with red, and the rest of the body red. Jerdon and Blyth agree that these bright, changeable colours are peculiar to the male during the breeding-season, which falls in the months of May to early October.

21-3-2025 MINNERIYA, SRILANKA - RED WATTLED LAPWING (Vanellus indicus)

The Red-wattled Lapwing, Vanellus indicus, is a striking bird with a robust build, approximately 35 cm in length. Its upperparts are a light brown with a sheen that can appear purple or green, while the head and neck boast a contrasting black. A white patch extends from the underbelly and tail, along the neck, and up to the sides of the crown. The tail is short with a black tip. Notably, it sports a red fleshy wattle before each eye, a red bill with a black tip, and long yellow legs. In flight, one can observe the distinctive white wing bars.

When identifying the Red-wattled Lapwing, look for the characteristic red wattles in front of the eyes, the black-tipped red bill, and the yellow legs. The white wing bars are particularly visible in flight. Males and females are similar in appearance, though males may have slightly longer wings.

This lapwing favors well-watered open landscapes, such as ploughed fields, grazing lands, and the peripheries of tanks and puddles. It is also known to inhabit forest clearings near rain-filled depressions.

The Red-wattled Lapwing is widely distributed across West Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. It is a resident species throughout much of its range, although some populations may move altitudinally during spring and autumn.

The Red-wattled Lapwing is known for its vigilant nature, often the first to sound an alarm at intrusions. It exhibits a slow, deliberate flight but can be remarkably agile when necessary. The species is also known for its nocturnal feeding habits, particularly during the full moon.

The bird's call is a loud, scolding "did-he-do-it," which can be heard both day and night, contributing to its colloquial name, the "did-he-do-it bird."

Breeding season spans from March to August, with courtship displays involving males puffing up feathers and shuffling around females. Nests are ground scrapes, sometimes lined with pebbles or droppings, where 3-4 camouflaged eggs are laid. Both parents incubate and perform distraction displays to protect the nest.

Its diet consists mainly of insects, snails, and other invertebrates, which are typically foraged from the ground. The lapwing may also consume grains and is known to use its legs to disturb prey from soft soil.

21-3-2025 MINNERIYA, SRILANKA - BROWN SHRIKE (Lanius cristatus)

The brown shrike (Lanius cristatus) is a bird in the shrike family that is found mainly in Asia. It is closely related to the red-backed shrike (L. collurio) and isabelline shrike (L. isabellinus). The genus name, Lanius, is derived from the Latin word for "butcher", and some shrikes are also known as "butcher birds" because of their feeding habits. The specific cristatus is Latin for "crested", used in a broader sense than in English. The common English name "shrike" is from Old English scríc, "shriek", referring to the shrill call.

Like most other shrikes, it has a distinctive black "bandit-mask" through the eye and is found mainly in open scrub habitats, where it perches on the tops of thorny bushes in search of prey. Several populations of this widespread species form distinctive subspecies which breed in temperate Asia and migrate to their winter quarters in tropical Asia. They are sometimes found as vagrants in Europe and North America.

In 1747 the English naturalist George Edwards included an illustration and a description of the brown shrike in the second volume of his A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. He used the English name "The Crested Red, or Russit Butcher-Bird". Edwards based his hand-coloured etching on a specimen that had been sent from Bengal to the silk-pattern designer Joseph Dandridge in London. When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the tenth edition, he placed the brown shrike with the other shrikes in the genus Lanius. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Lanius cristatus and cited Edwards' work. The specific epithet is Latin meaning "crested" or "plumed".

21-3-2025 MINNERIYA, SRILANKA - ASIAN GREEN BEE-EATER (Merops orientalis)

The Asian green bee-eater, known scientifically as Merops orientalis, is a captivating near passerine bird belonging to the bee-eater family. This slender and brightly colored avian species measures approximately 9 inches in length, with the elongated central tail-feathers contributing about 2 inches to its overall size. The plumage is predominantly bright green, with a blue tinge on the chin and throat, and a golden rufous touch on the crown and upper back. The flight feathers exhibit a rufous hue mixed with green and tipped with blackish. A distinctive black line runs in front of and behind the eye, while the iris is a striking crimson. The bill is black, and the legs are a dark grey, with feet that are weak and toes that are joined at the base.

To identify the Asian green bee-eater, look for the bright green plumage with blue and golden rufous accents. The sexes appear similar and cannot be visually distinguished. Juveniles lack the elongated tail feathers seen in adults. The bird's bill is black, and the legs are dark grey. The crimson iris is a notable feature that can aid in identification.

The Asian green bee-eater is found in a variety of habitats including grasslands, thin scrub, and forests, often at a considerable distance from water bodies. It prefers open country with bushes and can adapt to different environments from arid areas in Africa and Arabia to more diverse habitats in Asia.

This species is widely distributed across Asia, from coastal southern Iran, through the Indian subcontinent, to Vietnam. It is a resident bird but exhibits seasonal movements, often moving to drier regions during the rainy season and to warmer areas in winter. In some parts of Pakistan, they are known as summer visitors.

The Asian green bee-eater is known for its insectivorous diet, predominantly consuming bees, wasps, and ants captured in mid-air from open perches. It employs a unique method of removing stings and breaking the exoskeleton of its prey before consumption. Seasonal movements are observed in response to rainfall, but true migration is not well documented. These birds are often seen in small groups and may roost communally. They exhibit a tendency to sand-bathe more frequently than other bee-eater species and occasionally bathe in water.

The call of the Asian green bee-eater is a nasal trill, sounding like "tree-tree-tree-tree," typically emitted during flight.

Breeding season spans from March to June. The Asian green bee-eater often nests solitarily, constructing tunnels in sandy banks. The nest tunnel can extend up to 5 feet in length, with 3-5 glossy white, spherical eggs laid at the end of the tunnel. Both sexes participate in incubation, and the eggs hatch asynchronously after about 14 days. Chicks fledge in 3 to 4 weeks, showing a reduction in body weight during the fledging stage.

The Asian green bee-eater feeds on flying insects, with a preference for beetles and hymenopterans, while orthopterans seem to be avoided. Occasionally, they may consume crabs. They regurgitate indigestible parts of their prey as pellets.

The IUCN Red List classifies the Asian green bee-eater as Least Concern, indicating that the species does not currently face a significant risk of extinction.

21-3-2025 MINNERIYA, SRILANKA - ASIAN ELEPHANT

The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), also known as the Asiatic elephant, is a species of elephant distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, from India in the west to Borneo in the east, and Nepal in the north to Sumatra in the south. Three subspecies are recognised—E. m. maximus, E. m. indicus and E. m. sumatranus. The Asian elephant is characterised by its long trunk with a single finger-like processing; large tusks in males; laterally folded large ears but smaller in contrast to African elephants; and wrinkled grey skin. The skin is smoother than African elephants and may be depigmented on the trunk, ears or neck. Adult males average 4 tonnes (4.4 short tons) in weight, and females 2.7 t (3.0 short tons).

It is one of only three living species of elephants or elephantids anywhere in the world, the others being the African bush elephant and African forest elephant. Further, the Asian elephant is the only living species of the genus Elephas. It is the second largest species of elephant after the African bush elephant. It frequently inhabits grasslands, tropical evergreen forests, semi-evergreen forests, moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous forests and dry thorn forests. They are herbivorous, eating about 150 kg (330 lb) of vegetation per day. Cows and calves form groups, while males remain solitary or form "bachelor groups" with other males. During the breeding season, males will temporarily join female groups to mate. Asian elephants have a large and well-developed neocortex of the brain, are highly intelligent and self-aware being able to display behaviors associated with grief, learning, greeting etc.

The Asian elephant is the largest living land animal in Asia. Since 1986, the Asian elephant has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, as the population has declined by at least 50 per cent over the last three elephant generations, which is about 60–75 years. It is primarily threatened by loss of habitat, habitat degradation, fragmentation and poaching. Wild Asian elephants live to be about 60 years old. While female captive elephants are recorded to have lived beyond 60 years when kept in semi-natural surroundings, Asian elephants die at a much younger age in captivity; captive populations are declining due to a low birth and high death rate. The earliest indications of captive use of Asian elephants are engravings on seals of the Indus Valley civilisation dated to the 3rd millennium BC.

21-3-2025 MINNERIYA, SRILANKA - ASIAN ELEPHANT (JUVENILE) (Elephas maximus)

The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), also known as the Asiatic elephant, is a species of elephant distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, from India in the west to Borneo in the east, and Nepal in the north to Sumatra in the south. Three subspecies are recognised—E. m. maximus, E. m. indicus and E. m. sumatranus. The Asian elephant is characterised by its long trunk with a single finger-like processing; large tusks in males; laterally folded large ears but smaller in contrast to African elephants; and wrinkled grey skin. The skin is smoother than African elephants and may be depigmented on the trunk, ears or neck. Adult males average 4 tonnes (4.4 short tons) in weight, and females 2.7 t (3.0 short tons).

It is one of only three living species of elephants or elephantids anywhere in the world, the others being the African bush elephant and African forest elephant. Further, the Asian elephant is the only living species of the genus Elephas. It is the second largest species of elephant after the African bush elephant. It frequently inhabits grasslands, tropical evergreen forests, semi-evergreen forests, moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous forests and dry thorn forests. They are herbivorous, eating about 150 kg (330 lb) of vegetation per day. Cows and calves form groups, while males remain solitary or form "bachelor groups" with other males. During the breeding season, males will temporarily join female groups to mate. Asian elephants have a large and well-developed neocortex of the brain, are highly intelligent and self-aware being able to display behaviors associated with grief, learning, greeting etc.

The Asian elephant is the largest living land animal in Asia. Since 1986, the Asian elephant has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, as the population has declined by at least 50 per cent over the last three elephant generations, which is about 60–75 years. It is primarily threatened by loss of habitat, habitat degradation, fragmentation and poaching. Wild Asian elephants live to be about 60 years old. While female captive elephants are recorded to have lived beyond 60 years when kept in semi-natural surroundings, Asian elephants die at a much younger age in captivity; captive populations are declining due to a low birth and high death rate. The earliest indications of captive use of Asian elephants are engravings on seals of the Indus Valley civilisation dated to the 3rd millennium BC.

21-3-2025 MINNERIYA, SRILANKA - PLAIN PRINIA (prinia inornata)

The Plain Prinia, or Prinia inornata, known also as the plain wren-warbler or white-browed wren-warbler, is a diminutive bird of the Cisticolidae family. Measuring 13–14 cm in length, these warblers possess short, rounded wings, a relatively long tail, sturdy legs, and a succinct black bill. The breeding plumage of adults is characterized by a grey-brown upper body, a conspicuous short white supercilium, and rufous fringes on the closed wings, while the underparts are of a whitish-buff hue. Both sexes exhibit identical plumage.

In the non-breeding season, the Plain Prinia's upperparts transition to a warmer brown, and the underparts take on a more pronounced buff color. The tail elongates during this period. Geographic variations exist among the subspecies, with differences in plumage shade. Notably, the endemic Sri Lankan race maintains its summer plumage and shorter tail throughout the year.

The Plain Prinia is a bird that favors wet lowland grasslands, open woodlands, and scrub areas. It can also be found in gardens, adapting to human-altered landscapes.

21-3-2025 MINNERIYA, SRILANKA - ORIENTAL GARDEN LIZARD ( Calotes versicolor)

The oriental garden lizard (Calotes versicolor), also called the eastern garden lizard, Indian garden lizard, common garden lizard, bloodsucker or changeable lizard, is an agamid lizard found widely distributed in Indo-Malaya. It has also been introduced in many other parts of the world.

Calotes versicolor is an insectivore, and the male gets a bright red throat in the breeding season. It measures over 10 cm (3.9 in) in length snout-to-vent. Total length including the tail is up to 37 cm (14.5 in). Two small groups of spines, perfectly separated from each other, above each tympanum. Dorsal crest moderately elevated on the neck and anterior part of the trunk, extending on to the root of the tail in large individuals, and gradually disappearing on the middle of the trunk in younger ones. No fold in front of the shoulder, but the scales behind the lower jaw are much smaller than the others; gular sac not developed. From thirty-nine to forty-three series of scales round the middle of the trunk. The hind foot (measured from the heel to the extremity of the fourth toe) is not much longer than the head in the adult, whilst it is considerably longer in the young. The coloration is very variable, sometimes uniform brownish or greyish-olive or yellowish. Generally broad brown bands across the back, interrupted by a yellowish lateral band. Black streaks radiate from the eye, and some of them are continued over the throat, running obliquely backwards, belly frequently with greyish longitudinal stripes, one along the median line being the most distinct; young and half-grown specimens have a dark, black-edged band across the inter-orbital region.

The ground-colour is generally a light brownish olive, but the lizard can change it to bright red, to black, and to a mixture of both. This change is sometimes confined to the head, at other times diffused over the whole body and tail. A common state in which it may be seen (as stated by T. C. Jerdon) is, seated on a hedge or bush, with the tail and limbs black, head and neck yellow picked out with red, and the rest of the body red. Jerdon and Blyth agree that these bright, changeable colours are peculiar to the male during the breeding-season, which falls in the months of May to early October.

21-3-2025 MINNERIYA, SRI LANKA - PADDYFIELD PIPIT (Anthus rufulus)

The Paddyfield Pipit, or Oriental Pipit, is a rather large member of the pipit family, measuring around 15 cm in length. It is predominantly streaked grey-brown on its upper parts and pale on its underparts, with some breast streaking. Both sexes appear similar, with long legs, a lengthy tail, and a dark bill. The plumage does not vary significantly between seasons, but juveniles can be distinguished by their richer coloration below and more pronounced spotting on the breast.

Distinguishing the Paddyfield Pipit in winter can be challenging due to the presence of migratory pipit species. However, it is generally smaller and more compact than its relatives, with a shorter tail and a less powerful flight. Its call, a repetitive "chip-chip-chip," is distinct from the explosive "shreep" of Richard's Pipit and the nasal "pschreen" of Blyth's Pipit. The Paddyfield Pipit can be confused with the Tawny Pipit but has more streaking on the mantle and lacks the Tawny's black loreal stripe.

20-3-2025 WATER GARDENS SIGIRIYA, SRI LANKA - DAY WATER LILY (Nymphaea nouchali)

Nymphaea nouchali, often known by its synonym Nymphaea stellata, or by common names blue lotus, star lotus, red water lily, dwarf aquarium lily, blue water lily, blue star water lily or manel flower, is a water lily of genus Nymphaea. It is native to southern and eastern parts of Asia, and is the national flower of Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. In Sanskrit it is called utpala. This species is usually considered to include the blue Egyptian lotus N. nouchali var. caerulea.[4] In the past, taxonomic confusion has occurred, with the name Nymphaea nouchali incorrectly applied to Nymphaea pubescens.

N. nouchali is a day-blooming non-viviparous plant with submerged roots and stems. Part of the leaves are submerged, while others rise slightly above the surface. The leaves are round and green on top; they usually have a darker underside. The floating leaves have undulating edges that give them a crenellated appearance. Their size is about 20–23 cm (8" to 9") and their spread is up to 1.5 metres (5') from the rhizome.

This water lily has a beautiful flower which is usually white or blue in color. Its variants occur in white, blue, violet, purple, pink & cream/yellowish white colours. The flower has four or five sepals and 13-15 petals that have an angular appearance, making the flower look star-shaped from above. The cup-like calyx has a diameter of 4–15 cm (2" to 6")

20-3-2025 WATER GARDENS SIGIRIYA, SRI LANKA - PLAIN TAWNY RAJAH BUTTERFLY (Charaxes psaphon)

Charaxes psaphon, plain tawny rajah, is a butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It was described by John Obadiah Westwood in 1847. It is found in the Indomalayan realm.

The fast flying Tawny Rajah travels at all levels through the forest. They only feed on rotting fruit, tree sap and faecal matter. Males are fond of mud sipping, but females are rarely seen on the ground. They engage in ‘hill topping’. This is a migrant species.

This butterfly is not an abundant species. It is more likely found in dry zone forests.

20-3-2025 WATER GARDENS SIGIRIYA, SRI LANKA - MEXICAN SUNFLOWER (Tithonia diversifolia)

 Tithonia diversifolia is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae that is commonly known as the tree marigold, Mexican tournesol, Mexican sunflower, Japanese sunflower or Nitobe chrysanthemum. It is native to Mexico and Central America but has a nearly pantropical distribution as an introduced species. Depending on the area they may be either annual or perennial. It has shown great potential in raising the soil fertility in soils depleted in nutrients.

Originating in Mexico; research has shown its potential in benefiting poor African farmers. This plant is a weed that grows quickly and has become an option as an affordable alternative to expensive synthetic fertilizers. It has shown to increase plant yields and the availability of soil nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K).

20-3-2025 WATER GARDENS SIGIRIYA, SRI LANKA - TRAILING DAISY (Sphagneticola trilobata)

Sphagneticola trilobata, commonly known as the Bay Biscayne creeping-oxeye, marigold Singapore daisy, creeping-oxeye, trailing daisy, and wedelia, is a plant in the tribe Heliantheae of the family Asteraceae. It is native to Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean, but now grows throughout the Neotropics. It is widely cultivated as an ornamental groundcover.

Spreading, mat-forming perennial herb up to 30 cm in height. Has rounded stems up to 40 cm long, rooting at nodes and with the flowering stems ascending. Leaves are fleshy, hairy, 4–9 cm long and 2–5 cm wide, serrate or irregularly toothed, normally with pairs of lateral lobes, and dark green above and lighter green below. Its surface is hairy or glabrous, rarely scaly.

Peduncles are 3–10 cm long; involucres are campanulate to hemispherical, about 1 cm high; chaffy bracts are lanceolate, rigid. The flowers are bright yellow ray florets of about 8-13 per head, rays are 6–15 mm long; disk-corollas 4–5 mm long. The pappus is a crown of short fimbriate scales. The seeds are tuberculate achenes, 4–5 mm long. Propagation is mostly vegetatively as seeds are usually not fertile. In the tropics it is free-flowering, and elsewhere it blooms mostly from spring to autumn.

It has a very wide ecological tolerance range, but grows best in sunny areas with well-drained, moist soil at low elevations.

20-3-2025 LION ROCK SIGIRIYA, SRI LANKA - TOQUE MACAQUE (Macaca sinica)

This smallest macaque is a native Sri Lankan species with a golden-brown fur. The local people call Toque Macaque the “Rilawa”. The most characteristic feature of this primate is the toque-like swirl of hair on its head top. As a matter of fact, their physiological characteristics vary greatly, depending on climatic conditions. Thus, populations in cooler climate exhibit thick, dark brown coat as well as relatively short limbs and tails. Meanwhile, those inhabiting lowland rainforests typically display reddish or golden fur and longer bonnets. Populations in drier habitats have lighter fur, noticeably longer legs and tails as well as shorter swirl of hair on their head.

The Toque macaques are native and endemic exclusively to Sri Lanka, where they generally occupy three types of habitat, hence can be divided into three subspecies. These are: the Common toque macaque, occurring in dry habitat; the Pale-fronted toque macaque, inhabiting wet areas; and the Hill-zone toque macaque, found at high elevations.

These primates are generally tree-dwelling creatures. The Toque macaques are highly social animals, living in units of up to 40 individuals, which remain in the group for a long period of time. However, young males are known to occasionally move between groups. As a general rule, these social units contain twice as many females as males. Each group consists of 50% mature individuals and 50% infants and juveniles. Individuals of both genders have certain responsibilities within a group. Males are the leaders of the groups, settling conflicts between juveniles, whereas females raise offspring. The Toque macaques live in a well-defined dominance hierarchy system, where the oldest male is usually the most dominant one, followed by lower-ranked members of the community: sub-adult males, adult females and then juveniles. As diurnal animals, the Toque macaques perceive their environment mainly through vision, which is even used to identify a food source. A large part of their active time is spent looking for food.

20-3-2025 WATER GARDENS SIGIRIYA, SRI LANKA - INDIAN BLUE PEAFOWL (FEMALE) (Pavo cristatus)

The Indian peafowl, also known as the common peafowl or blue peafowl, is a species native to the Indian subcontinent. It is a bird of resplendent beauty, with the male, or peacock, showcasing a spectacular array of iridescent colors. The peacock's most striking feature is its fan-like crest of spatula-tipped wire-like feathers and the long train made up of elongated upper-tail covert feathers adorned with colorful eyespots. These feathers can be raised into a fan and quivered during courtship displays. Despite their size, peacocks are capable of flight. The female, or peahen, is more subdued in coloration, with a white face, iridescent green lower neck, and overall dull brown plumage.

The Indian peafowl is unmistakable within its range. The male has a metallic blue crown, a fan-shaped crest, and a spectacular train with eye-spot markings. The peahen is smaller, with a rufous-brown head, mottled upper body, and dark brown lower parts. The loud "pia-ow" or "may-awe" calls are distinctive and often indicate the presence of predators.

Indian peafowl are ground-dwelling birds that prefer open forest or land under cultivation. They are adaptable and can be found near water sources in both moist and dry-deciduous forests.

20-3-2025 WATER GARDENS SIGIRIYA, SRI LANKA - CRIMSON MARSH GLIDER DRAGONFLY (rithemis aurora)

Trithemis aurora, the crimson marsh glider, is a species of dragonfly in the family Libellulidae. It is a common and widely distributed species found throughout the year across the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.

The male of this small species is distinctly different from the female. The male has a reddish-brown face, with eyes that are crimson above and brown on the sides. The thorax is red with a fine, purple pruinescence. The abdomen, the base of which is swollen, is crimson with a violet tinge. The wings are transparent with crimson venation and the base has a broad amber patch. The wing spots are a dark reddish-brown and the legs are black.

The female has an olivaceous or bright reddish-brown face with eyes that are purplish-brown above and grey below. The thorax is olivaceous with brown median and black lateral stripes. The abdomen is reddish-brown with median and lateral black markings. The black markings are confluent at the end of each segment and enclose a reddish-brown spot. The wings are transparent with brown tips. The venation is bright yellow to brown and basal amber markings are pale. The wing spots are a dark brown and the lags are dark grey with narrow yellow stripes.

It is commonly found in weedy tanks and ponds, marshes, channels, and slow flowing streams and rivers in the lowlands and mid-hills. It breeds in streams, rivers, canals, ponds and tanks.

20-3-2025 WATER GARDENS SIGIRIYA, SRI LANKA - ASIAN WOOLLY NECKED STORK (Ciconia episcopus)

The Asian woolly-necked stork or Asian woollyneck (Ciconia episcopus) is a species of large wading bird in the stork family Ciconiidae. It breeds singly, or in small loose colonies. It is distributed in a wide variety of habitats including marshes in forests, agricultural areas, and freshwater wetlands across Asia.

The woolly-necked stork is a medium-sized stork at 75–92 cm tall. The iris is deep crimson or wine-red. The stork is glistening black overall with a black "skull cap", a downy white neck which gives it its name. The lower belly and under-tail coverts are white, standing out from the rest of the dark coloured plumage. Feathers on the fore-neck are iridescent with a coppery-purple tinge. These feathers are elongated and can be erected during displays. The tail is deeply forked and is white, usually covered by the black long under tail coverts. It has long red legs and a heavy, blackish bill, though some specimens have largely dark-red bills with only the basal one-third being black. Sexes are alike. Juvenile birds are duller versions of the adult with a feathered forehead that is sometimes streaked black-and-white. The African birds are described as having the edges of the black cap diffused or with a jagged border compared to a sharp and clean border in the Asian birds. Sexes are identical, though males are thought to be larger. When the wings are opened either during displays or for flight, a narrow band of very bright unfeathered skin is visible along the underside of the forearm. This band has been variously described as being "neon, orange-red", "like a red-gold jewel", and "almost glowing" when seen at close range.