3-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - MARTIAL EAGLE (Polemaetus bellicosus)

The Martial Eagle (Polemaetus bellicosus), a formidable raptor, reigns over the sub-Saharan skies. This solitary species, the sole member of its genus, is distinguished by its impressive size and power. With feathered tarsi characteristic of the booted eagle subfamily, it is one of the largest of its kind. The Martial Eagle is an apex predator, soaring high to stoop upon a diverse array of prey, from mammals to reptiles.

Adult Martial Eagles exhibit a dark brown plumage on their upperparts, head, and upper chest, with occasional lighter feather edges. Their underparts are white, marked with sparse blackish-brown spots. In flight, their long broad wings and short tail give them a distinctive silhouette. Juveniles are paler with a greyish mottled appearance and take up to seven years to acquire their adult plumage.

The Martial Eagle favors wooded belts within open savanna landscapes, avoiding dense forests and arid deserts. It is often found perched in an upright position in large trees, surveying its territory.

This eagle's range spans across sub-Saharan Africa, with higher densities in southern and parts of east Africa. It is more sporadic in west Africa, with notable populations in protected areas such as South Africa's Kruger National Park.

Martial Eagles spend a significant portion of their day aloft, soaring at great heights. They are solitary outside of the breeding season and exhibit a preference for less disturbed areas, likely due to the abundance of prey and aversion to human activity.

The Martial Eagle is not a frequent vocalizer, but it does emit a low mellow whistle as a contact call and a louder, trilling call during territorial displays.

Breeding occurs at various times across their range, with nests built high in large trees. They lay usually one egg, with the female performing most of the incubation. Fledglings remain dependent on their parents for several months post-fledging.

The Black-chested Snake Eagle may be confused with the Martial Eagle but is significantly smaller with different coloring and flight patterns. Juvenile Martial Eagles may be mistaken for juvenile Crowned Eagles but differ in wing and tail proportions.

Diet and Feeding

Martial Eagles are opportunistic predators, with a diet comprising mammals, birds, and reptiles. They are known for hunting from a high soar, using their keen eyesight to spot prey from several kilometers away.

The Martial Eagle is currently classified as Endangered by the IUCN, with populations declining due to factors such as persecution, habitat destruction, and collisions with power lines. Conservation efforts focus on education and the expansion of protected areas.

3-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - GREATER BLUE EARED STARLING (Lamprotornis chalybaeus)

The greater blue-eared starling, or Lamprotornis chalybaeus, is a striking bird adorned in glossy blue-green plumage with a purple-blue belly and a distinctive blue ear patch. This bird measures approximately 22 cm in length and sports a short tail. The iris of this species is a vivid yellow or orange, adding to its captivating appearance. Both sexes exhibit similar coloration, though juveniles can be distinguished by their duller feathers and blackish-brown underparts.

When identifying the greater blue-eared starling, look for its glossy blue-green upperparts and purple-blue belly. The blue ear patch is a key feature, along with its bright yellow or orange iris. Juveniles are less lustrous and have darker underparts. This species can be confused with the lesser blue-eared starling, but the latter's blue belly does not extend forward of the legs.

The greater blue-eared starling is commonly found in open woodland environments, where it thrives and breeds.

This bird has a broad range across the African continent, from Senegal in the west, stretching east to Ethiopia, and then southward through eastern Africa to northeastern South Africa and Angola. It is known to undertake seasonal migrations within this range.

The greater blue-eared starling is a highly social bird, often seen in large flocks that may include other starling species. It is also known to roost communally in reedbeds, thorn bushes, or acacia trees, sometimes sharing these spaces with other birds.

The vocal repertoire of the greater blue-eared starling includes a variety of musical and grating calls. A commonly heard call is a nasal "squee-ar," which is quite distinctive.

Breeding pairs of greater blue-eared starlings make their nests in tree holes, which can be naturally occurring or previously excavated by woodpeckers or barbets. They are also known to utilize the large stick nests of the sacred ibis or Abdim's stork. Their nests typically contain three to five greenish-blue eggs adorned with brown or purple spots. These eggs hatch after about 13–14 days, and the fledglings leave the nest approximately 23 days post-hatching. The species is occasionally parasitized by the great spotted cuckoo and, less frequently, by the greater honeyguide.

An omnivorous bird, the greater blue-eared starling's diet is predominantly insectivorous, foraging mainly on the ground for a variety of invertebrates. It also consumes seeds and berries, with a particular fondness for figs. Additionally, these starlings are known to perch on livestock, picking off insects disturbed by the animals and sometimes removing ectoparasites.

The IUCN Red List classifies the greater blue-eared starling as Least Concern, indicating that the species does not currently face any significant threats to its survival.

3-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - EMERALD SPOTTED WOOD DOVE (Turtur chalcospilos ssp. zambesiensis)

The emerald-spotted wood dove or emerald-spotted dove (Turtur chalcospilos) is a bird of the family Columbidae, resident across eastern and southern Africa. It is a species of open drier deciduous woodland and second growth. It is absent from evergreen rainforests and semidesert areas.

At Hluhluwe-Umfolozi, South Africa, showing the bluish-emerald wing spots

Calling in woodland during autumn

The emerald-spotted wood dove is a small plump pigeon, typically 20 cm in length. Its back, hindneck, wings, and tail are pale grey-brown, and the folded wings have green metallic patches. There are blackish bands on the lower back and tail. The forehead, crown, and nape are bluish-grey, fading to pinkish-grey on the throat. The underparts are mauve-pink, becoming whiter on the belly.

The bill of this dove is blackish with a red base. The sexes are similar, but the female may be slightly duller than the male. The immature has duller green spots and buff fringes to the feathers. When flying, the black-billed wood dove is told from this species by its bright chestnut underwings.

The call is in three parts: two soft long coos, followed by a series of slow descending coos lasting 10 seconds, and concluding with 4 seconds of rapid coos, which decrease in volume.

This species shows some geographical variation in plumage, but differences are clinal, and emerald-spotted wood dove is now considered to be monotypic.

The emerald-spotted wood dove builds a flimsy stick nest in a tree or shrub, and lays two cream-coloured eggs. Both sexes incubate for 13–17 days to hatching, and feed the squabs for 13–17 days to fledging. Many young birds are taken by mongooses and shrikes.

The emerald-spotted wood dove is not gregarious, but flocks may form at waterholes. This species usually forages on the ground for grass and other small seeds.

3-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - DICKINSON'S KESTREL (Falco dickinsonii)

Dickinson's kestrel (Falco dickinsoni) is a bird of prey of southern and eastern Africa belonging to the falcon family Falconidae. It is named after John Dickinson, an English physician and missionary who collected the type specimen. It is also known as the white-rumped kestrel. Its closest relatives are the grey kestrel and banded kestrel and the three are sometimes placed in the subgenus Dissodectes.

It is a fairly small, stocky kestrel with a large, square head. It is 27–30 cm (11–12 in) long with a wingspan of 61–68 cm (24–27 in) and a weight of 167–246 g (5.9–8.7 oz). The female is about 4% larger and 10-20% heavier than the male. The plumage is mostly dark grey with a pale head and rump. The tail is grey with narrow black bars and a broad subterminal band. The underside of the flight feathers are also barred. The cere and feet are yellow and there is bare yellow skin around the eye. The bill is dark grey and the eyes are brown. Juvenile birds are grey-brown with barred flanks and without the paler head and rump. They have a greenish cere and eye-ring.

It is usually silent but has a high-pitched alarm and contact call. At the nest, a soft, mewing call attracts the young for feeding.

It inhabits savanna and open woodland, particularly swampy areas near water. It favours miombo woodland[2] and is typically associated with palm trees (such as Hyphaene and Borassus species) and is also often found near baobab trees. It occurs in coconut plantations in some areas.

Its range covers most of Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi along with north-eastern South Africa (mainly in Kruger National Park), northern Botswana, north-east Namibia, eastern Angola, southern Democratic Republic of the Congo and parts of Tanzania. It is an occasional visitor to Kenya. The total range is about 3,400,000 km2 (1,300,000 sq mi). It is generally rather scarce but is commoner in some areas such as Zanzibar and Pemba Islands. Loss of palm trees is a potential threat to the species.

It usually hunts from a perch and only occasionally hovers. Large insects such as grasshoppers form the bulk of the diet. It also feeds on lizards and amphibians and sometimes birds, bats, rodents and snakes. It is often attracted to grass fires where it preys on fleeing insects and other prey.

The breeding season lasts from July to October in Tanzania and September to December further south. The nest is a simple scrape with no material used. It is sited 2 to 18 m (6.6 to 59.1 ft) above the ground in the crown of a dead palm or in a hole in a baobab. Sometimes the old nest of a Hamerkop is used. One to four eggs are laid. They are cream-coloured with reddish-brown markings and are incubated by the female for at least 30 days. The young birds fledge after approximately 33 to 35 days.

3-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - BRADFIELD'S HORNBILL (Lophoceros bradfieldi)

Bradfield's hornbills are African birds found in southern Africa's woodlands, characterized by a black back, white belly, and an orange beak. They are medium-sized, live solitarily or in pairs, and primarily eat fruits, insects, and small reptiles. A key identification feature is the small white corners on the tail, which are visible in flight. 

Identification Appearance: Black back and wings with a white belly and a red-orange beak. The tail has small white corners that are conspicuous in flight. They have a black eye mask.Size: Medium-sized, about \(50-57\) cm (\(20-22\) in) long.Females: Smaller than males and have turquoise facial skin.Call: A long, insistent series of piping notes. 

Habitat and diet Habitat: Woodland areas, especially those with mopane and Zambezi teak trees, in northeastern Namibia, northern Botswana, southern Angola, and eastern Zimbabwe.

Diet: Primarily feed on fruits, large insects like locusts and beetles, nuts, and small reptiles. They also hunt for flying insects. 

Reproduction Nesting: Typically nest in natural tree cavities.Clutch size: Usually lay 3 eggs.Incubation: The female incubates the eggs alone for about 4 weeks.Parental care: After the chicks hatch, the female leaves the nest to help the male with hunting. The chicks stay in the nest for about 2 months. 

Conservation status Status: Classified as "Least Concern" by the IUCN. However, the population is likely declining due to habitat loss from logging. 

3-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - BATELEUR EAGLE (JUVENILE)(Terathopius ecaudatus

The bateleur eagle is a medium-sized eagle native to Sub-Saharan Africa with a distinctive appearance, including a red face and legs, a short tail, and a colorful black and chestnut plumage. Known for its unique, wobbly flight style, this raptor hunts a varied diet of small mammals, birds, reptiles, and carrion, often soaring for long distances to find prey. They pair for life, nest in trees, and are currently listed as endangered due to population decline. 

Appearance

Plumage: Adults have a black body, chestnut mantle, rump, and tail, with gray shoulders and wing patches.

Facial features: They have a bright red face and bright red legs.

Size: They measure 55–70 cm (22–28 inches) in length with a wingspan of 168–190 cm (5.5–6.3 feet).

Juveniles: Young eagles are mostly brown with some white dappling. 

Behavior and lifestyle

Flight: Their flight is characterized by a rocking or wobbly motion, giving them the name "Bateleur," which means "tightrope walker" or "street performer" in French. They are highly aerial and spend many hours soaring.

Social structure: They are monogamous and typically live and hunt in pairs, although they are territorial.

Mood indicators: The red skin on their face and feet can change color; it flushes bright red when they are excited.

Sunbathing: After bathing, they often stand upright with their wings spread to sunbathe in a classic "phoenix" pose.

Communication: They are generally silent but can produce barks and screams. 

Diet

Varied diet: Their diet is not limited to snakes and includes small mammals, birds, reptiles, and carrion.

Hunting: They hunt by soaring over a large territory, sometimes covering up to 250 square miles. 

Reproduction

Nesting: They build sturdy stick nests in large trees.

Eggs: They lay only one egg at a time.

Life cycle: Incubation lasts about 50-60 days, and the young fledge after about 100 days. 

Conservation status

Status: The bateleur eagle is listed as endangered.

Threats: Their population is declining, partly due to the use of poison baits, and they are increasingly confined to protected areas. 

3-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - AFRICAN SAVANNA ELEPHANT (Loxodonta Africana)

The African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), also known as the African savanna elephant, is a species of elephant native to sub-Saharan Africa. It is one of three extant elephant species and, along with the African forest elephant, one of two extant species of African elephant. It is the largest living terrestrial animal, with fully grown bulls reaching an average shoulder height of 3.04–3.36 metres (10.0–11.0 ft) and a body mass of 5.2–6.9 tonnes (5.7–7.6 short tons); the largest recorded specimen had a shoulder height of 3.96 metres (13.0 ft) and an estimated body mass of 10.4 tonnes (11.5 short tons). The African bush elephant is characterised by its long prehensile trunk with two finger-like processes; a convex back; large ears which help reduce body heat; and sturdy tusks that are noticeably curved. The skin is grey with scanty hairs, and bending cracks which support thermoregulation by retaining water.

The African bush elephant inhabits a variety of habitats such as forests, grasslands, woodlands, wetlands and agricultural land. It is a mixed herbivore feeding mostly on grasses, creepers, herbs, leaves, and bark. The average adult consumes about 150 kg (330 lb) of vegetation and 230 L (51 imp gal; 61 US gal) of water each day. A social animal, the African bush elephant often travels in herds composed of cows and their offspring. Adult bulls usually live alone or in small bachelor groups. During the mating season, males go through a process called musth, a period of high testosterone levels and heightened aggression. For females, the menstrual cycle lasts three to four months, and gestation around 22 months, the longest of any mammal.

Since 2021, the African bush elephant has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. It is threatened foremost by habitat destruction, and in parts of its range also by poaching for meat and ivory. Between 2003 and 2015, the illegal killing of 14,606 African bush elephants was reported by rangers across 29 range countries. Chad is a major transit country for smuggling of ivory in West Africa. This trend was curtailed by raising penalties for poaching and improving law enforcement. Poaching of the elephant has dated back to the 1970s and 80s, which were considered the largest killings in history. In human culture, elephants have been extensively featured in literature, folklore and media, and are most valued for their large tusks in many places.

3-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - PEARL SPOTTED OWLET (Glaucidium perlatum)

The pearl-spotted owlet, a diminutive yet captivating bird of prey, graces the sub-Saharan skies. Belonging to the Strigidae family, these true owls are a marvel of evolution. With a modest length of 17 to 21 centimeters, the females slightly outweigh their male counterparts, tipping the scales at around 100 grams compared to the males' 65 grams. Their plumage is a harmonious blend of cinnamon-brown adorned with white spots, while their facial disc is an understated off-white, complemented by striking yellow eyes. A distinctive feature is the pair of black false 'eyes' on the back of their head, outlined in white, which can be quite the deception in the wild.

When observing these owlets, note the large white spots on their tail and flight feathers, which form conspicuous bars during flight. Their bill and cere are a pale greenish-yellow, and their legs are feathered white with yellow feet. Juveniles share a similar appearance to adults but may have less pronounced head and back spots, and their false 'face' is particularly noticeable.

The pearl-spotted owlet thrives in a variety of woodland and bushveld habitats, with a fondness for mopane and open thorn savanna that offer sparse ground cover. They tend to avoid dense woodlands, forests, and open grasslands.

This species is widespread across sub-Saharan Africa, from Senegal and Gambia to western Sudan, and southward through Botswana and Zimbabwe to northern South Africa, Angola, and Namibia.

These owlets are diurnal, often seen active during the day, but they primarily hunt and vocalize at night. They roost in open sites beneath small bushes or shrubs, and exhibit a keen awareness of their surroundings, readily shifting perches if disturbed. When alarmed, they may flick or wag their tail feathers and are known to bathe during the day when water is available. Their flight is characterized by speed and an undulating pattern, with a distinctive whirring of wings.

The pearl-spotted owlet's vocal repertoire includes a series of shrill, short whistles that build up in tempo and volume, culminating in a crescendo of descending long, loud whistles. During the breeding season, pairs may engage in duets, with the female's pitch being higher. In moments of alarm, they emit soft whistles and peeps.

Monogamous and territorial, these owlets are solitary nesters. The male woos the female with food offerings, and the female may call softly from within the nest before laying eggs. They favor old holes made by barbets or woodpeckers for nesting, and a single female may return to the same site for several years. Clutches typically consist of 2 to 4 eggs, with an incubation period of about 29 days.

The African barred owlet is often mistaken for the pearl-spotted owlet. However, the barred owlet has finely barred plumage on the head and back, a blotched breast, and lacks the false 'eyes'. It also has a proportionally larger head.

Pearl-spotted owlets are nocturnal hunters, preying on arthropods like grasshoppers, crickets, and solifuges from low perches. They are also capable of capturing small vertebrates such as rodents, bats, lizards, snakes, and small birds. During the day, they may hunt opportunistically and are often mobbed by smaller birds.

2-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - GREEN BACKED CAMAROPTERA (Camaroptera brachyura)

The green-backed camaroptera (Camaroptera brachyura), also known as the bleating camaroptera, is a small bird in the family Cisticolidae. This bird is a resident breeder in Africa south of the Sahara Desert. Recent studies suggest this species and the grey-backed camaroptera may be the same species.

This skulking passerine is typically found low in dense cover. The green-backed camaroptera binds large leaves together low in a bush and builds a grass nest within the leaves. The normal clutch is two or three eggs.

These 11.5 cm long warblers have green upperparts. The wings are olive and the underparts whitish grey. The sexes are similar, but juveniles are paler yellow on the breast.

Like most members in the group, green-backed camaroptera is insectivorous.

The green-backed camaroptera was described by the French ornithologist Louis Pierre Vieillot in 1821 under the binomial name Sylvia brachyura. The type locality is the Cape of Good Hope. The specific epithet brachyura is from the Ancient Greek brakhus for "short" and -ouros for "-tailed".

2-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - VERREAUX'S EAGLE OWL (Bubo lacteus)

Verreaux's eagle-owl (Ketupa lactea), also commonly known as the milky eagle owl or giant eagle owl, is a member of the family Strigidae. This species is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa. A member of the genus Ketupa, it is the largest African owl, measuring up to 66 cm (26 in) in total length. This eagle-owl is a resident primarily of dry, wooded savanna. Verreaux's eagle-owl is mainly grey in color and is distinguishable from other large owls by its bright pink eyelids, a feature shared with no other owl species in the world.

Verreaux's eagle-owl is a highly opportunistic predator equipped with powerful talons. Just over half of its known diet is composed of mammals but equal or even greater numbers of birds and even insects may be hunted locally, along with any other appropriately sized prey that is encountered. This species is considered of Least Concern by IUCN as it occurs over a wide range and has shown some adaptability to human-based alterations and destruction of habitat and adaptability to diverse prey when a primary prey species declines in a region. As a large, highly territorial species of owl, it does, however, occur at fairly low densities and some regional declines have been reported.

The common name commemorates the French naturalist Jules Verreaux. The type specimen that was later described by Temminck at the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie was collected by Verreaux while he was still in his teens.

Verreaux's eagle-owl is found through most of sub-Saharan Africa, though it is absent from most of the deep rainforests. The species is found at the highest densities in eastern and southern Africa. As this species avoids primary forests, it is found very spottily in west Africa. Their western distribution includes The Gambia, Senegal, Guinea and Sierra Leone.

Eastward from those countries to the Central African Republic, the species is distributed in a narrow transitional zone between the Sahara and rainforests. Seemingly isolated populations occur in central Nigeria and central Mali. In south-western Africa, they range up to as far north as the southern parts of the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, through most of Namibia (excluding the coastal regions) and northern South Africa. In east Africa, their distribution is more or less continuous from southern Sudan, Eritrea and inland Somalia down to South Africa as far as the region of the city of Durban.

This species inhabits mainly savanna with scattered trees and thorny vegetation. Verreaux's eagle-owls mainly inhabit rather dry regions, some bordering semi-arid areas. In central Mali, for example, near the extreme northwestern limit of the species range, the habitat that hosts these owls averages less than 55 cm (22 in) of rainfall annually. They also range into riverine forest adjacent to savanna and small, semi-open woodland surrounded by open country, though they are less likely to inhabit heavily wooded habitats. South African eagle-owls are not infrequently found around floodplains and marshes, which may provide the primary nesting habitat in some areas. In Uganda, they are largely associated with riparian woodlands. Verreaux's eagle-owl may live at nearly all elevations, from sea level to near the snow-line at around 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in elevation, such as in the Eastern Rift mountains. However, in general, they only sporadically inhabit rocky areas and so are generally very scarce in mountainous regions. The bushveld of southern Africa is near ideal habitat for Verreaux's eagle-owl and the species may be found at near peak numbers here. The species was historically rare to absent from the Kalahari Desert, but the introduction by man of invasive trees like conifers, eucalyptus and acacias, irrigation areas and prey species has allowed them to spottily occupy this region.

2-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - SOUTHERN CORDONBLEU (MALE) (Uraeginthus angolensis)

The blue waxbill (Uraeginthus angolensis), also called southern blue waxbill, blue-breasted waxbill, southern cordon-bleu, blue-cheeked cordon-bleu, blue-breasted cordon-bleu and Angola cordon-bleu, is a common species of estrildid finch found in Southern Africa. It is also relatively commonly kept as an aviary bird.

The male blue waxbill has powder-blue face, breast, rump, and flanks with pale brown upperparts. The female is paler than the male and the blue is confined to the rump, tail, head, and upper breast, with the rest of the underparts being buffy brown. They measure 12–13 cm in length.

The call is a soft 'seee-seee', often repeated as bird flits through the lower parts of bush and scrub.

The blue waxbill occurs in southern Africa from Cabinda and the Congo to Kenya and Tanzania in the east south to northern South Africa. It may have been introduced to the islands of São Tomé and to Zanzibar.

The blue waxbill occurs in a variety of habitats but generally prefers well-watered and semi-arid savanna, particularly where umbrella thorns Vachellia tortilis grow, also occupying natural growth in cultivated land, mopane Colosphermum mopane and forest edges.

Both sexes build the nest, an oval-shaped structure with a short entrance tunnel on the side, constructed of grass stems and inflorescences and lined with feathers. The nest is normally placed among the foliage of a bush or tree, especially umbrella thorn and sickle bush Dichrostachys cinerea. They often choose to build the nest near the nest of a wasp such as Belonogaster juncea; there is no evidence that wasps deter nest predators, but the birds may use the presence of wasp nests as a way of working out whether there are arboreal ants Pseudomyrmex spp in the tree, as if present they would deter nesting by any wasps or birds. Blue waxbills may also re-use the old nests of other birds, such as scarlet-chested sunbird, spectacled weaver or black-chested prinia, sometimes building a new structure on top of the original.

2-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - BROWN SNAKE EAGLE (Circaetus cinereus)

The brown snake-eagle is a large African bird of prey that specializes in hunting snakes, including venomous species like cobras and puff adders, which it kills by crushing their spine with its powerful feet. This solitary bird is found in sub-Saharan Africa in open woodlands and savannas. It has thick-scaled legs for protection against bites, hunts from an exposed perch, and typically lays only one egg per breeding season. 

Diet and hunting

Primary prey: The brown snake-eagle's diet consists mainly of snakes, both venomous and non-venomous, such as cobras, puff adders, and mambas. It will also eat other prey like lizards, monitor lizards, and small mammals.

Hunting technique: It hunts by perching on a high, exposed spot and scanning the ground below for prey. When it spots prey, it will swoop down to strike, using its powerful feet and talons to crush the snake's spine before it can bite.

Venom defense: It has heavily scaled legs that provide some protection against snake bites, but it is not immune and can sometimes be killed by its prey. 

Physical characteristics

Appearance: It is a large bird with a uniform brown head and body, yellow eyes, and a black beak. Its tail has narrow white barring.

Size:

Length: 68-75 cm

Wingspan: 1.6-1.75 m

Weight: Around 2 kg 

Habitat and distribution

Range: Found throughout sub-Saharan Africa.

Habitat: Prefers open, dense woodlands, savannas, and areas with low hills or gulleys. It avoids lowland forests and deserts.

Status: Listed as "least concern" by the IUCN due to its large range, even though it is not very common in most areas. 

Breeding and life cycle

Solitary nature: The brown snake-eagle is a solitary bird, though they may perch in pairs.

Nesting: It builds a small platform nest of sticks, sometimes reusing old nests from other birds.

Reproduction: Lays a single egg and incubates it for about 50 days. Both parents feed the chick, and the young bird fledges around 95-113 days old. 

2-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - ZAMBESI CRESTED BARBET (Trachyphonus vaillantii ssp. nobilis)

The crested barbet, Trachyphonus vaillantii, is a small, vibrantly colored bird, easily recognized by its thick bill and speckled plumage. Its face is a mosaic of yellow and red, adorned with a modest black crest. The belly mirrors the face with yellow and red speckles, while the wings are black with white dots. A striking black band encircles its neck. The bird's overall yellow hue, peppered with black and white feathers and red at the body's end, provides excellent camouflage in its natural bush habitat. The crested barbet's call is a distinctive trill.

When identifying the crested barbet, look for its unique coloration and markings. The combination of a yellow and red speckled face, a small black crest, and a broad black neck band are key features. The bird's trilling call can also serve as an auditory clue to its presence.

The crested barbet thrives in a variety of environments, including forests, savannahs, suburban gardens, woodland thickets, and areas near watercourses.

This species is widely distributed across sub-Saharan Africa, with sightings confirmed in Angola, Botswana, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eswatini, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

Crested barbets are typically observed alone or in pairs. They exhibit a preference for foraging on the ground but are also known to vocalize from exposed branches. Their flight is limited and typically consists of short bursts. These birds roost in tree cavities and are highly territorial, often aggressively defending their space against other birds and even larger threats like rats and snakes.

The male crested barbet is renowned for its continuous trill, a call that can persist for extended durations, serving as a vocal beacon within its habitat.

Crested barbets are monogamous and territorial during the breeding season. They nest in tree holes or logs, with territory size varying by habitat. Their breeding season spans from September to December, during which they may lay one to five eggs at daily intervals. Incubation, primarily by the female, lasts between 13 and 17 days starting from the second or third egg. The hatchlings are altricial, being naked and blind at birth, and are fed insects by both parents. After about 31 days, the fledglings leave the nest, and up to five broods may be raised in a single season.

The crested barbet's diet is omnivorous, consisting of insects, other birds' eggs, fruits, and occasionally small mammals like mice.

The IUCN Red List classifies the crested barbet as Least Concern, indicating that the species does not currently face any significant threats to its survival.

2-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - COMMON IMPALA (MALE) (Aepyceros melampus ssp. melampus)

The impala (Aepyceros melampus) is a medium-sized antelope that is found in Africa. It was first described to European audiences by German zoologist Hinrich Lichtenstein in 1812. Active mainly during the day, the impala may be gregarious or territorial depending upon the climate and geography. The impala is known for two characteristic leaps that constitute an anti-predator strategy.

Impala is an elegant and magnificent species of antelope. The animal has slender body with the identifying "M"-like marking on the rear. This medium-sized antelope possesses thin, pointed horns with tips, lying far apart from each other. Males of this species are identified by the characteristic "S"-like horns. The elegant limbs of these animals have scent glands behind the ankles. The overall coloration of their fur is red-brown with paler sides. In addition, they have black and white colored areas on their body. Thus, the tail, belly, chin, lips, inside ears as well as the lines above the eyes are colored with white. Meanwhile, black bands cover their thighs, tail, forehead and ear tips.

Impalas are distributed throughout the northeastern part of South Africa, Angola, southern Rwanda, Uganda, and Kenya. Close proximity to a water source is an important life condition for these animals. Generally, they prefer woodland with little undergrowth as well as low to medium-height grassland.

Impalas have polygynous mating system, where each male mates with a number of females. The period of peak breeding activity is March-May. During this period, pregnant females live in isolation to give birth. The gestation period lasts from 194 to 200 days, yielding a single calf, which weighs about 5kgs (11 lbs). After a few days, the calf and the female rejoin the herd. Then, after a while, the calf joins a crèche of other young impalas. They are weaned at 4-5 months old. Male impalas reach reproductive maturity at 1 year of age, while females are ready to breed when they are between 1 and 2 years old. Becoming reproductively mature, they, however, do not rush to establish territories. They typically start mating only at 4 years old.

These antelopes are both diurnal and nocturnal. They are most active just after sunrise and before sunset, socializing and moving with their herd, whereas, during the nighttime hours, impalas usually lie down and ruminate. Female impalas and their offspring gather into herds, containing from 15 to 100 individuals. The home range of each herd covers a territory, varying from 80 to 180 hectares. During the wet season, females become highly territorial, defending home ranges of their herds. On the other hand, young males form bachelor, non-territorial herds of up to 30 individuals. During the dry season, male and female herds can often be seen mixed together. Home ranges of mature breeding males vary from season to season. Thus, during the breeding season, they usually have smaller home ranges, which they fiercely defend. Males use a wide variety of methods to defend their home range, including fighting, tail-raising, chasing, roaring, erect posture as well as forehead marking and forehead rubbing.

The animals presently suffer from the fragmentation of their range due to the development of human settlements. In addition, roads such as the Serengeti Highway in Tanzania have an extremely negative effect, making it difficult for scattered migrating populations to move between parks, where the antelopes feed, mate and give birth. In addition, populations in South Africa are exposed to hunting for their meat by local people.

2-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - CHACMA BABOON (Papio ursinus)

Chacma baboons are found throughout southern Africa, ranging from South Africa north to Angola, Zambia, and Mozambique. They live in diverse habitats from woodlands to savannas, steppes, and sub-deserts. Chacma baboons are found in the Kalahari Desert as well as on the alpine slopes of the Drakensberg. They usually sleep on hills, cliffs, or large trees and during the day, avoid arid areas with a lack of water.

The Chacma baboon (Papio ursinus) is a member of the Old World monkey family. It is one of the largest of all monkeys. Located primarily in southern Africa, the chacma baboon has a wide variety of social behaviors, including a dominance hierarchy, collective foraging, adoption of young by females, and friendship pairings. In general, the species is not threatened, but hunting, trapping, and accidents kill or remove many baboons from the wild, thereby reducing their numbers and disrupting their social structure.

2-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - SOUTHERN CORDONBLEU (MALE) (Uraeginthus angolensis)

The blue waxbill (Uraeginthus angolensis), also called southern blue waxbill, blue-breasted waxbill, southern cordon-bleu, blue-cheeked cordon-bleu, blue-breasted cordon-bleu and Angola cordon-bleu, is a common species of estrildid finch found in Southern Africa. It is also relatively commonly kept as an aviary bird.

The blue waxbill has powder-blue face, breast, rump, and flanks with pale brown upperparts. The female is paler than the male and the blue is confined to the rump, tail, head, and upper breast, with the rest of the underparts being buffy brown. They measure 12–13 cm in length.

The call is a soft 'seee-seee', often repeated as bird flits through the lower parts of bush and scrub.

The blue waxbill occurs in southern Africa from Cabinda and the Congo to Kenya and Tanzania in the east south to northern South Africa. It may have been introduced to the islands of São Tomé and to Zanzibar.

The blue waxbill occurs in a variety of habitats but generally prefers well-watered and semi-arid savanna, particularly where umbrella thorns Vachellia tortilis grow, also occupying natural growth in cultivated land, mopane Colosphermum mopane and forest edges.

2-6-2019 LINYANTI CAMP, BOTSWANA - GOLDEN TAILED WOODPECKER (Campethera abingoni)

The golden-tailed woodpecker (Campethera abingoni) is a species of bird in the family Picidae. Its specific name commemorates the 5th Earl of Abingdon. It belongs to a species complex that includes the Knysna woodpecker to the south of its range, and the mostly allopatric Mombasa woodpecker to the northeast, with which it perhaps hybridizes.

It is present in coastal forest, miombo, mopane and acacia woodlands. It shows a preference for riparian woodland, particularly in the dryer parts of southern Africa. It may intensively forage small areas in the lower to middle strata of trees. It establishes fairly large territories of 10 to 15 ha, and can cover some distance between foraging sites.

It obtains most food by probing and gleaning, but also hammers dead or infected wood rather more frequently than other Campethera species. It feeds mostly on arboreal ants and termites, but also takes millipedes, wood-boring larvae and leaf-feeding moth larvae. It occurs alongside the Cardinal woodpecker which to some extent exploits thinner branches.

Very widespread in woodlands or forest south of the equator, and very localized north of it. It is found in Angola, Benin, Botswana, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eswatini, Ivory Coast, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

They nest during early summer. Both sexes excavate the nest, usually on the underside of a branch in the lower to middle level of a tree. Two to three glossy white eggs are laid, and the parents take turns to incubate them. The male incubates at night. The incubation period is about 13 days, and the chicks are fed regurgitated food by both parents. Chicks leave the nest after 22 to 25 days. Their nests are parasitized by various species of honeyguide.