12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - WHITE THROATED KINGFISHER (Halcyon smyrnensis)

The White-throated Kingfisher, Halcyon smyrnensis, also known as the White-breasted Kingfisher, is a vibrant tree kingfisher. It boasts a striking blue back, wings, and tail, while its head, shoulders, flanks, and lower belly are a rich chestnut. The throat and breast are a contrasting white, and the large bill and legs are a vivid red. This robust bird measures 27–28 cm in length and exhibits a rapid and direct flight, revealing large white patches on its blue and black wings during flight. Both sexes appear similar, though juveniles present a more subdued version of the adult's plumage.

When identifying the White-throated Kingfisher, look for its bright blue upperparts and chestnut head and body. The white throat and breast are distinctive, as is the red bill and legs. In flight, the white wing patches are a key identification feature. Juveniles may be less colorful but retain the same general pattern.

This kingfisher is adaptable and can be found in a variety of open habitats, from plains with trees and wires to urban areas. It is also seen at elevations up to 7500 feet in the Himalayas.

The White-throated Kingfisher has a wide distribution across Asia, from the Sinai in the west, through the Indian subcontinent, to China and Indonesia. It is a resident species over much of its range, with some populations making short-distance movements.

This kingfisher is known for its conspicuous perching on wires or other exposed perches within its territory. It is a common sight in South Asia and is known to be attracted to lights at night during the monsoon season, suggesting partial migratory behavior.

During the breeding season, the White-throated Kingfisher is vocal, with loud calls in the mornings from prominent perches. The male's courtship display includes stiffly flicking open wings to expose the white wing mirrors, while the female invites with a rapid kit-kit-kit call.

Breeding coincides with the onset of the Monsoons. The nest is a tunnel in an earth bank, and a clutch typically consists of 4-7 round white eggs. Incubation takes 20-22 days, and fledging occurs in 19 days.

The diet is varied, including large crustaceans, insects, earthworms, rodents, lizards, snakes, fish, frogs, and occasionally small birds. It is noted for rarely drinking water but regularly bathing.

13-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - ORIENTAL DARTER (Anhinga melanogaster)

The Oriental darter (Anhinga melanogaster) is a water bird of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. It has a long and slender neck with a straight, pointed bill and, like the cormorant, it hunts for fish while its body is submerged in water. It spears a fish underwater, bringing it above the surface, tossing and juggling it before swallowing the fish head first. The body remains submerged as it swims, and the slender neck alone is visible above the water, which accounts for the colloquial name of snakebird. Like the cormorants, it has wettable feathers and it is often found perched on a rock or branch with its wings held open to dry.

13-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - SCARLET ROSEMALLOW (Hibiscus coccineus)

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - RUFOUS TREEPIE (Dendrocitta vagabunda)

The rufous treepie (Dendrocitta vagabunda) is a treepie, native to the Indian subcontinent and adjoining parts of Southeast Asia. It is a member of the crow family, Corvidae. It is long tailed and has loud musical calls making it very conspicuous. It is found commonly in open scrub, agricultural areas, forests as well as urban gardens. Like other corvids it is very adaptable, omnivorous and opportunistic in feeding.

The sexes are alike and the main colour of the body is cinnamon with a black head and the long graduated tail is bluish grey and is tipped in black. The wing has a white patch. The only confusable species is the grey treepie which however lacks the bright rufous mantle. The bill is stout with a hooked tip. The underparts and lower back are a warm tawny-brown to orange-brown in colour with white wing coverts and black primaries. The bill, legs and feet are black.

The widespread populations show variations and several subspecies are recognized. The nominate subspecies is found in the northeastern part of peninsular India south to Hyderabad. The desert form is paler and called pallida, vernayi of the Eastern Ghats is brighter while parvula of the Western Ghats is smaller in size. The form in Afghanistan and Pakistan is bristoli while the form in southern Thailand is saturatior. E. C. Stuart Baker describes sclateri from the upper Chindwin to the Chin Hills and kinneari from southern Myanmar and northwest Thailand. The population in eastern Thailand an Indochina is sakeratensis.

The range of the rufous treepie is quite large, covering Pakistan, India and into Bangladesh, Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand. It inhabits open forest consisting of scrub, plantations and gardens. In the Garhwal Himalayas, it migrates seasonally between different elevations.

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - LITTLE CORMORANT (Microcarbo niger)

The Little Cormorant, Microcarbo niger, is a dainty member of the cormorant family, measuring about 50 centimeters in length. In its breeding attire, it boasts a sleek, all-black plumage adorned with white spots and delicate filoplumes on its face, and a modest crest on the back of its head. The non-breeding or juvenile birds display a more subdued brownish plumage, with a small, distinct white patch on the throat.

Distinguishable from the slightly larger Indian Cormorant by its shorter beak and absence of a peaked head, the Little Cormorant has dark eyes and facial skin. Males and females appear similar, though males are generally larger. A rare silvery-grey plumage has been noted in some individuals.

The Little Cormorant frequents a variety of freshwater bodies, from diminutive village ponds to expansive lakes, and occasionally coastal estuaries.

This species is widely distributed across the Indian Subcontinent, extending east to Java. It is absent from the Himalayas, though vagrants have been spotted in Ladakh.

Often seen perched on waterside rocks with wings outstretched, the Little Cormorant forages alone or in small groups. It dives underwater, propelled by webbed feet, to catch fish, which are sometimes stolen by other birds when brought to the surface.

Breeding occurs in trees, often within mixed-species heronries. The breeding season varies regionally, with nests constructed from sticks. Clutch sizes range from two to six eggs, with asynchronous hatching due to incubation starting with the first egg.

The Little Cormorant may be confused with the vagrant Pygmy Cormorants, especially west of the Indus River valley, where their ranges overlap.

Their diet consists mainly of fish, which they catch by diving in shallow waters. They are known to fish in waters less than a meter deep, targeting fish approximately 2–8 centimeters in length.

Near their nests and roosts, Little Cormorants are quite vocal, emitting low roaring sounds, grunts, groans, and a variety of calls including a low-pitched "ah-ah-ah" and "kok-kok-kok".

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - INDIAN POND HERON (Ardeola grayii)

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - BRAHMINY KITE EAGLE (Haliastur indus)

The brahminy kite is distinctive and contrastingly coloured, with chestnut plumage except for the white head and breast and black wing tips. The juveniles are browner, but can be distinguished from both the resident and migratory races of black kites in Asia by the paler appearance, shorter wings, and rounded tail. The pale patch on the underwing carpal region is of a squarish shape and separated from Buteo buzzards. The brahminy kite is about the same size as the black kite (Milvus migrans) and has a typical kite flight, with wings angled, but its tail is rounded unlike the Milvus species, red kite, and black kite, which have forked tails. The two genera are, however, very close.

The call is a mewing keeyew.

This kite is a familiar sight in the skies of Sri Lanka, Nepal, India, Iran, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and southeast Asia and as far south as New South Wales, Australia, through which region it is widespread and resident. They perform seasonal movements associated with rainfall in some parts of their range.

They are mainly seen in the plains, but can sometimes occur above 5000 feet in the Himalayas.

It is evaluated as being of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. However, the species is on the decline in some parts such as Java.

The breeding season in South Asia is from December to April. In southern and eastern Australia, it is August to October, and April to June in the north and west. The nests are constructed of small branches and sticks with a bowl inside and lined with leaves, and are located in various trees, often mangroves. They show considerable site fidelity nesting in the same area year after year. In some rare instances, they have been seen to nest on the ground under trees. A clutch of two dull-white or bluish-white oval eggs measuring 52 x 41 mm is laid. Both parents take part in nest building and feeding, but likely only the female incubates. The incubation period is about 26 to 27 days.

It is primarily a scavenger, feeding mainly on dead fish and crabs, especially in wetlands and marshland, but occasionally hunts live prey such as hares and bats. They may also indulge in kleptoparasitism and attempt to steal prey from other birds.Brahminy kites have even been recorded taking advantage of Irrawaddy dolphins herding fish to the surface, in the Mekong River. A rare instance of a bird feeding on honey at the hive of Apis florea has been recorded. It also eats rice or cooked food left as an offering in India.

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - BRONZE WINGED JACANA (Metopidius indicus)

The bronze-winged jacana (Metopidius indicus ) is a wader in the family Jacanidae. It is found across South and Southeast Asia and is the sole species in the genus Metopidius. Like other jacanas it forages on lilies and other floating aquatic vegetation, the long feet spreading out its weight and preventing sinking. The sexes are alike but females are slightly larger and are polyandrous, maintaining a harem of males during the breeding season in the monsoon rains. Males maintain territories, with one male in the harem chosen to incubate the eggs and take care of the young. When threatened, young chicks may be carried to safety by the male under his wings.

Bronze-winged jacanas are rail-like, large, short tailed birds that appear dark at a distance except for the supercilium. They are 29 cm (11 in) in length. The sexes are similar but the females are slightly larger than the males. The wings are bronzy brown with a green sheen and have a reduced tubercular carpal spur. The head, neck and breast are black and contrast with the broad white supercilium that runs from over the eye to the back of the neck. The lower back and tail coverts are chestnut. The tail is stubby and reddish brown with black terminal band. The greenish yellow bill has a red-base to the upper mandible. A lappet or frontal shield extends up over the forehead and is reddish purple. The legs are greenish. The toes are long and the straight and the elongated nail on the hind toe is longer than the toe. Downy chicks are light brown with a dark stripe running down the nape. Young birds have brown upperparts, a rufous crown, white underparts, a buff foreneck, an undeveloped frontal shield, and may have a dull supercilium. Adults can be confused at a distance with the common moorhen (which is found in similar habitat) and with the watercock and while young can appear similar to the young of the pheasant-tailed jacana, they lack the black necklace seen in that species.

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - FENCE POST TREE (Gliricidia sepium)

Gliricidia sepium, often simply referred to as gliricidia or by its Spanish common name madre de cacao (calque of Nahuatl cacahuanāntli; also anglicized as mother of cocoa), is a medium size leguminous tree belonging to the family Fabaceae. It is an important multi-purpose legume tree, with a native range from Mexico to Colombia, but now widely introduced to other tropical zones.

Gliricidia sepium is a medium-sized tree that grows 10–12 m (33–39 ft) high. The bark is smooth, and its color can range from a whitish gray to deep red-brown. The flowers are located on the end of branches that have no leaves. These flowers have a bright pink to lilac color that is tinged with white. A pale yellow spot is usually at the flower's base. The tree's fruit is a pod about 10–15 cm (4–6 in) long. It is green when unripe and becomes yellow-brown when it reaches maturity. The pod produces four to ten round brown seeds.

G. sepium has been cultivated extensively by indigenous American cultures in North, Central, and South America since the pre-Columbian era, which makes it difficult to ascertain its original native distribution. Genetic studies have identified the center of genetic diversity of G. sepium as the dry zones of southern Mexico and northern Central America, which is now generally regarded as its true native range.

G. sepium was first introduced to the Philippines from Mexico via the Manila galleons along with 200 other tropical American plant species from as early as the early 1600s. Their use as a shade tree for cacao, coffee, and tea plantations led to their further spread. These later introductions include the Caribbean before 1850; Sri Lanka in the 1800s; India and Indonesia at around 1900; and West Africa, Uganda, and Kenya in the early 1900s. Other introductions followed in the 20th century and G. sepium now has a pantropical distributionnmaniye in Nigeria; rechesengel in Palau; and mãe-do-cacau in Portuguese.

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - DITCH JEWEL DRAGONFLY (Brachythemis contaminata)

Brachythemis contaminata, ditch jewel, is a species of dragonfly in the family Libellulidae. It is found in many Asian countries.

It is a small dragonfly with brown-capped yellowish-green eyes. Its thorax is olivaceous-brown, marked with a reddish-brown humeral stripe and two brownish stripes on each side. Wings are transparent; but with a broad bright orange fascia extending from base to within 2 to 3 cells of reddish pterostigma. Abdomen is ochreous-red, marked with dorsal and sub-dorsal brown stripes. Anal appendages are in reddish-brown. Female is similar to the male; but in pale yellowish-green color. Wings are transparent, tinted with yellow at extreme base;, but the bright orange fascia seen in the male absent.

It breeds in weedy ponds, lakes, and slowly moving streams; especially in sluggish waters. It is very common along sewage canals, tanks, ponds and ditches.

This type of dragonfly has the smallest genome of its kind. The entire circular genome is 15,056 bp in length and represents the smallest in presently known odonatan mitogenomes. (Yu et al 2014).  Its first species to have a complete mitochondrial genome among the family Libellulidae. This helps learn more about their genetics, and their evolution.

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - MILE A MINUTE VINE (Ipomoea cairica)

Ipomoea cairica is a vining, herbaceous, perennial plant with palmate leaves and large, showy white to lavender flowers. A species of morning glory, it has many common names, including mile-a-minute vine, Messina creeper, Cairo morning glory, coast morning glory and railroad creeper. The species name cairica translates to "from Cairo", the city where this species was first collected.

A hairless, slim climber with bulbous roots and lignescented base, its leaves are stalked with 2 to 6 cm long petioles. The leaf blade is ovate to circular in outline, 3 to 10 cm long and 6 to 9 cm wide. It is divided into five to seven segments, these are lanceolate, ovate or elliptic, entire and pointed at the tip and base. Often pseudo side-leaves are formed.

The lavender-coloured inflorescences are one to a cyme. The flower stalks are 12 to 20 mm long, the sepals are 6 to 8 mm long, ovate and sting-pointed. The crown is funnel-shaped, 4 to 6 cm long and violet colored. The stamens and the stylus do not protrude beyond the crown. The ovary is hairless. The fruits are spherical capsules approximately 1 cm in diameter containing one or two hairy seeds. Each fruit matures at about 1 cm across and contains hairy seeds. The vine blooms occasionally throughout the months, but more profusely from spring to summer.

Its exact native range is uncertain, though it is believed to originate from a rather wide area, ranging from Cape Verde to the Arabian Peninsula, including northern Africa, tropical Africa and the Mediterranean. It covers walls, fences or trees, with stems that can measure more than 10 metres (33 ft) in length. The altitude at which it has been recorded ranges from 250 metres (820 ft) to 2,250 m (7,380 ft).

Because of human dispersal, it occurs today on most continents as an introduced species and is sometimes a noxious weed and an invasive species, such as along the coast of New South Wales. As well as in the United States, where it occurs in Hawaii, California, all the gulf coast states, as well as Arkansas and Missouri. It also occurs in Brazil, where it is used in traditional medicine. It is a widespread garden escape in southeast Australia.

Some plant nurseries sell this plant as an ornamental plant thanks to its showy purple flowers and as well for its fast growth to quickly cover unsightly fences or walls. It can grow as a separate plant if snapped during attempted removal process. The plant causes respiratory symptoms if ingested.

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - LESSER WHISTLING DUCK (Dendrocygna javanica)

The Lesser Whistling Duck, also known as the Indian Whistling Duck or Lesser Whistling Teal, is a charming species with a distinctive chestnut brown plumage and a long neck. This bird is easily recognized by its broad wings, which are particularly visible during flight, and its chestnut rump, which sets it apart from its larger relative, the Fulvous Whistling Duck, with its creamy white rump.

When observing the Lesser Whistling Duck, look for the orange to yellow ring around the eye and the dark crown, which are key features for identification. Both sexes share similar plumage, making them indistinguishable in the field. In flight, they hold their heads below the body level, a characteristic posture of the Dendrocygna genus.

These ducks favor freshwater wetlands with ample vegetation cover. They are often seen resting during the day on the banks or even on the open sea in coastal areas.

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - GREY PANSY BUTTERFLY (Junonia atlites)

The Grey Pansy (Junonia atlites) is a nymphalid butterfly native to South Asia, characterized by its pale greyish-brown wings with intricate dark wavy lines and prominent, pinkish-black eyespots. Commonly found in open, sunny areas like gardens, fields, and wetlands, this 55-60mm butterfly frequently basks with its wings spread. 

J. atlites is found in Bangladesh, India, southern China, Cambodia, Indochina, the Malay Peninsula, western and central Indonesia, and the Philippines.

Key Facts About the Grey Pansy:

Appearance: The upperside is pale greyish buff, while the underside is much paler with fainter markings. Both wings feature a series of distinct eye-spots (ocelli).

Habitat & Behavior: Often observed gliding low over open grassy patches or near water bodies. They are, however, relatively rare in certain areas, such as Singapore.

Larval Food Plants: The caterpillars feed on plants in the Acanthaceae and Linderniaceae families, particularly Hygrophila species.

Regional Variation: Junonia atlites exhibits seasonal forms (wet- and dry-season forms) in parts of its range, such as Malaysia.

Pollinator: The adult serves as an active pollinator, feeding on nectar. 

It is commonly found in the low country and hills of South Asia, including India and Sri Lanka. Junonia atlites, the grey pansy, is a species of nymphalid butterfly found in South Asia.

Upperside of both sexes pale lavender brown, apical half of wings paler. Forewing: cell with, three transverse, short, sinuous black bands, the outermost defining the discocellulars; a similar short, somewhat broader band beyond the apex of the cell; two transverse discal dusky black fasciae, the inner highly sinuous and outward, angulate above vein 4, the outer straighter, somewhat lunular, bordered by a series of whitish ovals with dusky or black centers. The black-centered spots in the ovals in interspaces 2, 5, and 6 margined posteriorly with rich ocherous yellow.

Beyond this series of ovals is a lunular, narrow, transverse dark band, followed by sinuous subterminal and terminal broad dark lines. Apex of wing slightly fuliginous. Hindwing: a short slender black loop from veins 6 to 4 at apex of cell-area; two discal sinuous transverse dark, fasciae in continuation of those on the forewing: followed by a series of dark-centered ovals in interspaces 2–6, the ovals in interspaces 2, 5, and 6 with the dark centers inwardly broadly bordered with ochreous yellow; postdiscal, subterminal and terminal dark lunular lines as on the forewing.

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - CHEMBALI DUCK

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - CATTLE EGRET (Bubulcus ibis)

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - NINE SPOTTED MOTH (Amata phegea)

The Nine-spotted Moth (Amata phegea) is a striking, day-flying moth in the family Erebidae. Though native mainly to Europe, it has been recorded in India, including specific sightings in regions like Kerala. It is noted for its distinctive metallic blue-black wings, white spots, and yellow abdominal rings.

Key Identification & BiologyAppearance: 

Features a 35–40 mm wingspan, metallic blue/greenish-black wings with white spots, and a prominent yellow ring or "belt" on the abdomen.

Behavior: Diurnal (flies during warm, sunny days) and uses aposematism (bright warning colors) to signal toxicity to predators.

Diet: Adults feed on floral nectar, while caterpillars are polyphagous, feeding on a wide range of herbaceous plants.    

13-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - PURPLE RUMPED SUNBIRD (FEMALE) (Leptocoma zeylonica)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple-rumped_sunbird

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - WHITE FRANGIPANI (Plumeria obtusa)

Plumeria obtusa, the Singapore graveyard flower, is a species of the genus Plumeria (Apocynaceae). It is native to the Neotropics, but widely cultivated for its ornamental and fragrant flowers around the world, where suitably warm climate exists. 

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - STORK BILLED KINGFISHER (Pelargopsis capensis)

The Stork-billed Kingfisher, Pelargopsis capensis, is a grand avian spectacle, boasting a sizeable stature at 35 cm in length. This tree kingfisher is adorned with a vibrant palette: a green back, blue wings and tail, and an olive-brown head. Its underparts and neck are a soft buff, while the bill and legs are a striking bright red.

When identifying this species, look for its very large red bill, which is reminiscent of a stork's, hence the name. The sexes appear similar, making the task of distinguishing them a subtle art. The bird's flight is somewhat labored and flapping, yet it maintains a direct path.

The Stork-billed Kingfisher favors well-wooded environments, often found near bodies of water such as lakes, rivers, or coastal areas. It is a bird that appreciates the tranquility of nature's aquatic offerings.

This kingfisher has a wide but sparse presence across the tropical Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, from India to Indonesia. It is a resident bird, meaning it does not typically migrate and is found throughout its range year-round.

A quiet and often inconspicuous percher, the Stork-billed Kingfisher is territorial in nature. It does not hesitate to chase away even large predators such as eagles. It is a skilled hunter, preying on fish, frogs, crabs, rodents, and occasionally young birds.

The vocal repertoire of this species includes a low, far-reaching "peer-por-por" repeated every few seconds, as well as a cackling "ke-ke-ke-ke-ke-ke," which can be heard echoing through its habitat.

Nests are excavated in river banks, decaying trees, or even in the nests of tree termites. The Stork-billed Kingfisher lays a clutch of two to five round white eggs, a modest but precious brood.

There are 13 recognized races or subspecies of the Stork-billed Kingfisher, mostly differentiated by subtle plumage details. One notable variety, P. c. gigantea from the Sulu Archipelago in the Philippines, is distinguished by its white head, neck, and underparts.

The diet of the Stork-billed Kingfisher is quite diverse, including aquatic and terrestrial prey such as fish, frogs, crabs, rodents, and young birds. It hunts with patience and precision, often from a secluded perch.

The Stork-billed Kingfisher is currently listed as Least Concern by the IUCN, indicating that, for now, this species does not face immediate threats to its survival on a global scale. However, continued monitoring is essential to ensure it remains out of danger.

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - RED WATER LILY (Nymphaea rubra)

Nymphaea rubra is a species of waterlily native to the region spanning from Sri Lanka and northeastern India to western and central Malesia. Additionally, it has been introduced to regions such as Southeast China, Cuba, Guyana, Hungary, and Suriname.

Nymphaea rubra has 15.1 cm long, and 7.9 cm wide rhizomes. The petiolate, orbicular leaves are 25–48 cm wide. The adaxial leaf surface is bronzy red to dark green, and the abaxial leaf surface is dark purple. The leaf venation is very prominent. The petiole is 140 cm long.

The flowers are 15–25 cm wide. The four purplish-red sepals are oblong to lanceolate. The 12-20 narrowly oval petals have a rounded apex. The androecium consists of 55 red stamens. The gynoecium consists of 16-21 carpels.[6] The fruit bears 1.85 mm long, and 1.6 mm wide seeds. The peduncle is 116 cm long.[3] The flowers are pleasantly fragrant.

The diploid chromosome count is 2n = 56.

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - COMMON CROW BUTTERFLY (Euploea lewiniip)

Euploea core, also known as the common crow, is a common butterfly found in South Asia to Australia. In India it is also sometimes referred to as the common Indian crow, and in Australia as the Australian crow. It belongs to the crows and tigers subfamily Danainae (tribe Danaini).

E. core is a glossy-black, medium-sized 85–95 mm (3.3–3.7 in) butterfly with rows of white spots on the margins of its wings. E. core is a slow, steady flier. Due to its unpalatability it is usually observed gliding through the air with a minimum of effort. As caterpillars, this species sequesters toxins from its food plant which are passed on from larva to pupa to the adult. While feeding, it is a very bold butterfly, taking a long time at each bunch of flowers. 

It can also be found mud-puddling with others of its species and often in mixed groups. The males of this species visit plants like Crotalaria and Heliotropium to replenish pheromone stocks which are used to attract a female during courtship.

The common crow is the most common representative of its genus, Euploea. Like the tigers (genus Danaus), the crows are inedible and thus mimicked by other Indian butterflies (see Batesian mimicry). In addition, the Indian species of the genus Euploea show another kind of mimicry, Müllerian mimicry. Accordingly, this species has been studied in greater detail than other members of its genus in India.

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - BLUE TIGER BUTTERFLY (Tirumala limniace)

https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/143257-Tirumala-limniace

13-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - TAWNY COSTER BUTTERFLY (Acraea terpsicore)

Acraea terpsicore, the tawny coster, is a small, 53–64 millimetres (2.1–2.5 in), leathery-winged butterfly common in grassland and scrub habitats. It belongs to the Nymphalidae or brush-footed butterfly family. It has a weak fluttery flight. It is avoided by most insect predators. This species and the yellow coster (Acraea issoria) are the only two Indian representatives of the predominantly African tribe Acraeini. It is found in India, Sri Lanka, Maldives to Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Bangladesh, Singapore, and recently Australia.

This species does not fly high, but seems to keep within 3 m of the ground and tends to rest on vegetation in the regions of a meter off the ground. Acraea terpsicore can be seen in abundance wherever its larval food plant (Passiflora species) is found. The adult tends to avoid dense undergrowth and shady areas, instead keeping to open spaces in all types of vegetation.

The adult flies slowly with weak seemingly unsteady wing beats. It is one of the boldest butterflies, protected as it is from predators by a nauseous chemical. When attacked it plays dead and exudes a noxious yellowish fluid from glands in the joints of the legs. Like all butterflies protected in this manner, Acraea terpsicore has a tough exoskeleton which enables the adult to survive a few pecks of a bird or even the bites of a lizard. Once left alone the adult immediately takes off and resumes its uncaring flight.

When feeding on flowers, this butterfly is unhurried, often spending a long time sitting on the same flower. When sitting it either spreads its wings or closes them over its back the hindwings covering the forewings to a large extent. Sometimes the butterfly will not sit, but rest gently on the flower while feeding, while doing this, to maintain balance, it beats only its forewings while keeping the hindwings completely steady.

13-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - BLUE TIGER BUTTERFLY (Tirumala limniace)

Tirumala limniace, the blue tiger, is a species of butterfly found in South Asia, and Southeast Asia that belongs to the brush-footed butterfly family, Nymphalidae. More specifically it is part of the crows and tigers or danaid group. This butterfly shows gregarious migratory behaviour in southern India. In some places, it may be found in congregations with Danaus genutia, Tirumala septentrionis, Euploea sylvester, Euploea core, Parantica aglea, and at high elevations, with Parantica nilgiriensis, on Crotalaria.

Tirumala limniace is a small butterfly with wide wings. It has a wingspan of 90 to 100 millimeters, with the males being smaller than the females. The upper side of the wing is dark brown to black and patterned with bluish-white, semi-transparent spots and lines. The blue of the bluish-white spots consists of the pigment pterobilin. In general, all butterflies can directly absorb heat from the sun via their wings to facilitate autonomous flight. Studies on blue tiger butterflies show that high-intensity light significantly increased flight activity. Blue tiger butterflies have a wing surface color that is composed of both light and dark colors. The dark areas on the wing surfaces are the heat absorption areas that allow for the facilitation of autonomous flight.

In cell 1b of the forewing, which, like all the others, is an area on the wing bounded by veins, run two strips, sometimes connected, after which there is a large spot. A stripe runs from the base of the discoid cell, followed by a large spot that is notched from the wing tip (apex). A large oval spot sits at the base of cell 2, a significantly smaller spot is at the base of cell 3, followed by a small spot. Five short stripes can be seen in the post-disk region on the leading edge, only two of which are clearly defined. Two rows of irregular points run submarginally, the inner ones being larger than the outer ones. There is a stripe in cell 1a on the hind wing. A strip that divides from the base also runs through cells 1b and 1c. In the discoid cell there is a wide dividing strip. The lower branch hooks or has a short spur-like base. At the base of cells 2 and 3 there is a thin, V-shaped arch. In cells 2 and 5 there is a strong, wide stripe at the base. Two rows of scattered, irregular points also run submarginally, the inner ones being larger than the outer ones.

The males differ from the females by a black pocket filled with scented scales in cell 1c, near the discoid cell on the upper side of the hind wings. The pockets are only created after hatching while the moth inflates its wings by turning up scented flakes. They play an important role in courtship, along with tufts of hair that can be turned out on the abdomen. The hairs sprout almost only from the rear third of the tuft of hair, a typical feature of the Danaini genera grouped under the clade Danaina.

The underside of the forewing is black, only the apex, like the underside of the hind wings, is olive-brown. The pattern largely corresponds to the top.

The antennae are black, as are the head and thorax, these two still bearing white dots and lines. The top of the abdomen is dark, the underside is pale brownish yellow colored with white shimmering underneath at the segment boundaries.

12-3-2020 KERALA, INDIA - RICE GRASSHOPPER (Genus Oxya)

The genus Oxya, commonly known as rice grasshoppers or rice-field grasshoppers, belongs to the family Acrididae (subfamily Oxyinae). These insects are significant agricultural pests in Asia and Africa, primarily known for causing damage to rice, sugarcane, and maize crops. They are well-adapted to marshy environments, often found in or near wetlands and agricultural fields. 

Here are key facts about the genus Oxya:

1. Appearance and Biology

Physical Characteristics: Oxya species are generally small to medium-sized grasshoppers. They are typically pale green to yellow-brown in color, often featuring a distinct, dark-brown, longitudinal stripe on either side of the head and pronotum.

Adaptations: They are well-adapted to wet, marshy conditions, with hind tibiae and tarsi that are flattened, functioning like oars to allow them to swim.

Life Cycle: They undergo incomplete metamorphosis (egg, nymph, adult).

Eggs are laid in the soil, usually in egg pods (often 25–40 eggs per pod) that are covered with a protective froth, enabling them to withstand harsh conditions.

Life Span: In many regions, they have one or two generations per year, with the egg stage often lasting through the winter (up to 200–300 days). 

2. Habitat and Ecology

Habitat: They prefer moist, humid environments, specifically rice fields, grasslands, and marshes.

Distribution: Highly widespread throughout Asia, particularly in Indomalaya and eastern Asia (e.g., China, Japan, Pakistan, India).

Diet: Oxya species are polyphagous, feeding on a variety of plants, but they mainly feed on rice, maize, millet, and other grasses. 

3. Pest Status and Damage

Feeding Behavior: Both nymphs and adults are highly destructive. They chew large angular holes in leaves, which can lead to complete defoliation, leaving only the leaf mid-ribs.

Crop Impact: They can cause severe yield losses, particularly by damaging tender leaves, stems, and filling panicles (grains). 2–4 adults per square meter can reduce rice output by 6.8–17.8%.

Management: Natural enemies include spiders, birds, and various parasitic larvae.